Psychology perspectives examples
The 7 Major Perspectives of Psychology (Made Simple)
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Perspectives in Psychology
Psychology is the study of people’s minds and behavior. Many psychologists defined and have presented different looks towards the interests and explanations of human behavior. Reasoning this, many perspectives in psychology emerged.
Starting from Aristotle to the modern definition of psychology, no single view has emerged as the correct way of viewing human behavior and mental processes. Nowadays viewpoints of founders of psychology have blended so much that they no longer exist as a separate school of thought.
The major perspectives in psychology that emerged are cognitive, behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, socio-cultural, and evolutionary.
1. Cognitive Perspective
One of the important psychological perspectives is the cognitive perspective of psychology. It focuses on the processing, organizing, storing, and retrieving of information and is concerned with the higher mental processes such as thinking, memory, etc.
The cognitive perspective is the newly developed area explaining human behavior developed during the 1960s. The foremost contributors to this perspective are George Miller (1920), Jerome Bruner (1915), and Ulrich Neisser (1928).
Cognition covers the higher intellectual process as perceiving, believing, thinking, remembering, knowing, deciding, and so on. The word “Cognito” means “I think”. Cognition is a mental process in which the information is obtained, processed, transferred, stored, retrieved, and used. It examines thinking, how we know and understand words, solve problems, make decisions, uses language, communicate our thoughts to others.
For example, if someone stops us on a highway, and if we perceive him to need help (his car is broken), we might stop offering assistance and remember that someone once helped us in a similar situation.
On the other hand, if we think that he is planning to rob at gunpoint or remember a bad accident with a similar situation, we would not assist him.
This suggests cognition helps to analyze the situation. From this perspective, cognition plays a vital role in guiding behavior.
2. Behavioral Perspective
Another, one of the importance of psychological perspectives is the behavioral perspective of psychology. It is based on observable behavior without giving importance to mental processes such as thinking, which emphasizes that learning plays a key role in controlling and influencing all behaviors.
The behavioral perspective of psychology suggests only shown behaviors are observable and not mental processes. It was J.B. Waston who had introduced the idea of behaviorism, the work of Ivan Pavlov that influences him.
Watson, then opined that human behavior can be measured through observable behavior, and not by the study of mind or consciousness. He formed and practiced these principles for animals which were later opened for humans.
Later, these psychology perspectives were followed by the B.F. Skinner, one of the greatest contemporary psychologists.
Skinner uses behavior in a very simple way. He used to cure diseases and change the behavior of animals in a variety of settings. The principles of Skinner’s are also used to train dolphins, seals, and other animals found in the circus or at home.
3. Psychodynamic Perspective
Sigmund Freud developed the psychodynamic technique, used to study abnormal behavior. Freud felt the root of psychological problems are motives of sexual and aggressive nature which stay at the unconscious level of the mind.
The term psychodynamic is used because these unconscious motives and conflicts influence our behavior even though we do not know they exist. They are revealed in disguised, symbolic ways such as in dreams, in slips of the tongue, and sometimes in psychological problems.
Freud also focused on early childhood and emphasized that early experiences have major influences on personality development. The psychodynamic perspective is widely known for treating maladaptive behavior by bringing the unconscious causes of distress to the conscious level.
4. Humanistic Perspective
It emphasizes the psychological health of human beings, through psychotherapy, focusing on the individual’s free will, values, and goodness of people.
The humanistic perspective of psychology was developed by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Viktor Frankl during the 1950s and 1960s. This perspective has a very different view on human beings compared to psychoanalysis and behaviorism psychology perspectives.
This perspective focuses on freedom in controlling human behavior. According to them, each person is a unique individual and experiences the world differently. One of the most important humanistic principles is that all human beings have a basic powerful inborn tendency to grow and improve to their fullest potential, and a desire to take control of their own lives.
Humanistic psychologists are the “least scientific” of all perspectives of psychology. The principle they focus on is very difficult to investigate scientifically because it characterizes by philosophical aspects of human life.
5. Physiological or Biological Perspective
It mainly focuses on the physiology involved in all forms of behavior and mental processes. Uses research tools to investigate the functioning of the brain and nerve impulses and focuses mainly on the role of heredity in normal and abnormal behavior patterns.
Every human behavior is related to physiological changes within the body. The working relationship between the body, behavior, and mental processes is the focus of the biological perspective. The physiological perspective describes the role of nerve cells in different aspects of an individual’s behavior in emotion, reasoning, problem-solving, intelligence, speaking, etc.
In recent years, physiological psychologists are focusing on the influence of heredity on personality characteristics and abilities. They are also concentrating on behavior genetics to determine how much genes and environmental influence individual differences.
Karl Lashley especially focused on the continuous activity of the brain and its interaction with the environment and a dynamic composite of the interacting systems.
Lashley emphasized fatigue, lower motivation, and poor recall as the three factors that are especially important in forgetting.
6. Evolutionary Perspective
It focuses on how natural selection favors traits that promote the continuation of one’s genes. How does evolution influence behavior tendencies and how that behavior or structure aids in adapting to the environment?
An evolutionary perspective is based on the work developed by Charles Darwin (1859) who popularized the theory of evolution almost 150 years ago. The evolutionary perspective focuses on the role of the physical structure and behavior play in the adaption process of an organism to the environment.
Darwin, in his theory of evolution, popularized three basic components variance, inheritance, and selection.
- Variation refers to the fact that organisms belonging to a given species vary in different ways. Every human being has individual differences, differing in shape, size, intelligence, personality, health, and so on.
- Inheritance refers to the fact that some of these variations can be passed from generation to generation
- Selection refers to the particular behavior the organisms have adapted to best suit their environment.
7. Socio-Cultural Perspective
The main focus point of socio-cultural perspective is, how behavior and thinking vary across diverse cultures.
The way human beings socialize and develop from their early life to old age is explained through a perspective in psychology known as the socio-cultural perspective. Socio-cultural psychology explains how our personality, beliefs, attitude, skills, and values are shaped by our culture ethnicity, gender, religion, and other important socio-cultural factors.
Socio-cultural aspects are concerned with how people interact, are interdependent, and inter-coordinate with each other to influence and to be influenced by each other.
Conclusion
These 7 perspectives of psychology are recognized as appropriate means to understand human different characters, need, styles, evolution, and many things.
By comprising one or two perspectives one can be able to understand why and how humans behave the way they do.
These perspectives are effective ways to understand different problems of people which can be beneficial to different scholars, researchers, psychologists, and students.
However, it can not be said that these 7 perspectives are only the perspectives of psychology. Rather the psychologists today are increasingly involved in researching many more possible perspectives and in the future there may much more perspectives that additionally help to understand people, us, or human nature in a better way.
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5 Major Perspectives in Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of how we think, feel and behave. In this lesson, you'll get an overview of the five major perspectives that have guided modern psychological research.
Why do you act the way you do? Have you ever wondered why some people are the life of the party and others prefer to curl up with a good book? Or why you remember certain events but not others? People have studied the mind and how it works since the time of the ancient Greeks, but the scientific study of psychology only dates back to a little over a hundred years ago.
Since Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology lab in 1879, psychologists have studied various aspects of human behavior, such as personality, brain functions and socio-cultural influences. As psychology progressed, it began to tackle the question of why we do what we do from different angles, including: biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive and humanistic perspectives. Let's look at each of these five main approaches that guide modern psychological research.
Biological Approach
Biopsychologists look at how your nervous system, hormones and genetic makeup affect your behavior. Biological psychologists explore the connection between your mental states and your brain, nerves and hormones to explore how your thoughts, moods and actions are shaped.
So what does that mean? It means that for the biological approach, you are the sum of your parts. You think the way you do because of the way your brain is built and because of your body's needs.
All of your choices are based on your physical body. The biological approach attempts to understand the healthy brain, but it also examines the mind and body to figure out how disorders like schizophrenia develop from genetic roots.
Psychodynamic Approach
The psychodynamic approach was promoted by Sigmund Freud, who believed that many of our impulses are driven by sex. Psychologists in this school of thought believe that unconscious drives and experiences from early childhood are at the root of your behaviors and that conflict arises when societal restrictions are placed on these urges.
There are a lot of jokes about Freud and his now mostly outdated theories. But have you ever thought that something about who you are today comes from your experiences as a child? Say, you blame your smoking habit on an oral fixation that stems from being weaned from breastfeeding too early as a baby. Well, that also comes from Freud's theories, and it was an idea that revolutionized how we see ourselves.
Behavioral Approach
Behavioral psychologists believe that external environmental stimuli influence your behavior and that you can be trained to act a certain way. Behaviorists like B.F. Skinner don't believe in free will. They believe that you learn through a system of reinforcements and punishment.
The behavioral approach is really effective when you don't care what someone thinks, as long as you get the desired behavior. The influence of these theories affects us every day and throughout our lives, impacting everything from why we follow the rules of the road when driving to how advertising companies build campaigns to get us to buy their products.
Cognitive Approach
In contrast to behaviorists, cognitive psychologists believe that your behavior is determined by your expectations and emotions. Cognitive psychologist Jean Piaget would argue that you remember things based on what you already know. You also solve problems based on your memory of past experiences.
So, with this approach, we turn away from people as machines without free will and delve back into thoughts and feelings. How you act is based upon internal processes, and there is much more stress upon individuals. From a cognitive perspective, your expectations of an upcoming party will affect how you feel and act while you're there and will color your memory of the night after you return home.
Humanistic Approach
Humanistic psychologists believe that you're essentially good and that you're motivated to realize your full potential. Psychologists from this camp focus on how you can feel good about yourself by fulfilling your needs and goals. The prominent humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers called his patients 'clients' and offered a supportive environment in which clients could gain insight into their own feelings.
In contrast to the behavioral approach, the humanistic approach works on individual empowerment. Whether you are right or not, in a larger sense, you are motivated to be the best person you can be.
All your choices come from trying to improve your life. So, if you're trying to cut back on your nightly wine consumption, a humanistic therapist would be encouraging and supportive but won't directly advise you to quit or try to analyze why you drink in the first place.
Quick Review:
- Psychology is the scientific study of human thought, feelings and behavior.
- The five major perspectives in psychology are biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive and humanistic.
- Each perspective provides its own view on the roots of why you do what you do.
Read online “Psychological research of personality. History, current state, prospects” – LitRes
© Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 2015
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The problem of personality is one of the most complex in psychological science.
The very concept of "personality" transcends the boundaries of psychology and any other socio-humanitarian science. Nevertheless, it is necessary to study it, since it is on individuals that the final paths of decision-making converge in the conditions of social, economic, ideological and other changes that life is so rich in. And not only its future, but also the future of the country depends on how a person responds to modern challenges.
“Personality as an open system” was the title of one of the old articles by L. I. Antsyferova, a classic of Russian psychology (Antsyferova, 1970). The article was devoted to the works of the famous American psychologist G. Allport, but most of all this definition can be attributed to the views on the personality of Lyudmila Ivanovna herself. Answering positively the question of A. V. Yurevich “Does science have national characteristics?” (Yurevich, 2015), we would say that a feature of the Russian humanities is openness to knowledge obtained in other countries and cultures, with the ability to build and develop their original theories and concepts in a live dialogue with them, to make their own discoveries.
Such was the concept of Antsyferova's personality, which absorbed the latest developments of Western psychologists, but is distinguished by its unique originality and originality.
Turning to the work of Antsyferova (see also: Kharlamenkova, Zhuravlev, 2009, 2014) not only helps to maintain a high level of theoretical developments in the field of personality psychology, but also solves the problem of “strengthening the orientation of research work towards the development of relevant and socially significant problems” (Zhuravlev, 2010, p. 113). This book touches upon such issues as the psychology of a professional, the positive resources of an individual in a multicultural environment, the economic behavior of an individual, and many other difficult to research, but very relevant problems.
The book is a logical continuation of a collection of scientific papers published four years ago on topical issues of personality psychology (Modern Personality…, 2012). The need for a new approach to this topic is primarily related to the complex issues that a person faces in modern conditions.
Russian society is rapidly changing, problems are arising that some time ago it was even difficult to imagine. They are actively developed in the process of studying the socio-psychological dynamics of the individual and society (Zhuravleva, 2015; Dynamics of socio-psychological phenomena ..., 1996; Socio-psychological dynamics…, 1998; and etc.). The individual faces the problem of preserving his national, cultural and ethno-linguistic identity in a multicultural environment. Unprecedented pressure is exerted on the natural, given by nature, sexual identity. Smoldering and escalating military conflicts, the processes of formation of new states and changes in old borders lead to problems related to civic identity.
Modern personality, on the one hand, finds itself in extremely unstable conditions for its development, and on the other hand, “the times do not choose” and the reserves of human viability are great. The study of what helps the individual to maintain his integrity is relevant and in demand at all times.
A distinctive feature of the books of the publishing series "Proceedings of the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences" (see, for example: Psychological problems of the family ..., 2012; Personality of a professional ..., 2013; Methods of psychological support ..., 2014; Human psychology ..., 2014; etc.) is the fact that they publish the latest results of fundamental scientific research, which, nevertheless, have great prospects for practical application. As the works published here show, studies of the personality of a professional, and the characteristics of the personality of an elderly person, and problems of the ethnic consciousness of a person, etc., can be of a fundamental nature.
The fundamental nature of science is associated primarily with its reliance on methodology, theory and history. For personality psychology, this is also a “history in faces”, i.e. an appeal to the works of those scientists who have made a significant contribution to psychological science and whose works this branch of knowledge received a “registration” in the Academy of Sciences, becoming “academic psychology” (Ushakov, Zhuravlev, 2006).
Article by M. I. Volovikova “Institutional Development of Personality Psychology as a Field of Scientific Research at the Russian Academy of Sciences” deals primarily with the background and history of the creation of the Personality Psychology Laboratory at the USSR Academy of Sciences, the fate of the laboratory and research in the post-Soviet period, about the current state of affairs. Much attention is paid to the contribution of S. L. Rubinshtein to the creation of the first psychological unit at the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the activities and personality of L. I. Antsyferova, the organizer and first head of the laboratory of personality psychology, as well as the contribution to the development of domestic psychology of personality K. A. Abulkhanova , V. G. Aseeva, M. I. Bobneva, A. V. Brushlinsky, E. A. Budilova, I. A. Dzhidaryan, V. N. Druzhinina, A. B. Kupreichenko, B. F. Lomova, K K. Platonov, Ya. A. Ponomarev, S. K. Roshchin, V.
M. Rusalov, E. V. Shorokhova and many other famous scientists who worked (or are working) at the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
The logical continuation of this topic is the article VA Koltsova "Development of problems of methodology and history of psychology in the works of LI Antsyferova". Emphasizing the enormous contribution that Antsyferova made to the development of the domestic psychology of personality, the author analyzes in detail the original and original nature of the interpretation by the scientist of the principle of subjectivity in psychology, the development of a dynamic approach to the psychology of personality. Particular emphasis is placed on Antsyferova's conceptualization of the concept of "the inner world of the individual", the ontological nature of its definition.
Antsyferova introduced into Russian psychology a discussion of many of the problems that Western colleagues worked on, but her legacy was not only a competent repetition of the ideas and achievements of world psychology.
It can be argued that the domestic psychology of personality is, with good reason, original and original.
According to our observations, made including in the process of working on international projects, the Russian mentality serves as the environment that develops and transforms concepts that came from afar, sometimes beyond recognition. One of the clearest examples of such a transformation is, for example, “positive psychology” by I. A. Dzhidaryan (Dzhidaryan, 2014), in which the vector of “positivity” itself has changed dramatically. The soothing tone of the Western model has disappeared, an indescribable depth of the dialectic of true life, sincerely experienced, has appeared.
The origins of M. Seligman's positive psychology are in the humanistic direction, primarily in A. Maslow's ideas about the "psychological health of the individual" (Maslow, 1950). We believe that humanistic psychology itself, the spread of which in the Soviet period was greatly facilitated by the work of Antsyferova, also developed and changed in the domestic environment.
An article by M. D. Nyagolova , a Bulgarian psychologist, a prominent specialist in the scientific heritage of Henri Wallon, is devoted to the connection of Antsyferova's work with world psychology. The article is called "Antsyferova's contribution to the study of the work of the French psychologist Henri Wallon." The author, conducting a detailed and consistent, in chronological order, comparison of the works of foreign historians of psychology and publications of Antsyferova, comes to the conclusion that in the works of Lyudmila Ivanovna, the scientific heritage of the outstanding French psychologist was analyzed more fully and deeper. The article reveals the image of L. I. Antsyferova as a historian of psychological thought.
The fundamental problems of personality psychology are the questions of the relationship between the subject and the personality, the principle of development in the context of gerontopsychology. It is well known that the population of developed countries is rapidly aging, so there is an acute scientific and practical task of identifying the psychological conditions for maintaining and maintaining working capacity in the period of late adulthood.
The article by E. A. Sergienko “Scientific ideas of L. I. Antsyferova and their development in developmental psychology” traces the continuity of studies of personality and its development between the works of Antsyferova, published in 1970-1990s, and modern research of the author, which affirms the existence of an inseparable connection between the methodological principles of development, continuity, anticipation and subjectivity in psychology, substantiates the idea of the unity of the subject and personality as interrelated hypostases of human individuality. The article develops Antsyferova's ideas about the continuous dynamics of personality and options for its transformation during the aging period, poses and investigates the problem of a person's subjective age, reveals the role of subjective age identification in a person's development in different periods of life, as well as its significance as a psychological adaptation mechanism in old age.
Old age is not only a time of loss, but it can lead to gains, the most important of which is wisdom .
It is no coincidence that in the Caucasus the decisive word belongs to the elderly, and youth can be an obstacle to being elected to a responsible position. "Psychology of Wisdom" - such a scientific direction of research was largely supported in domestic psychology by the works of Antsyferova. And she herself was a model of a wise attitude to life.
Article V. V. Znakov “L. I. Antsyferova: Understanding Wisdom and the Wisdom of Comprehension of Oneself and Others” provides a theoretical analysis of the problem of wisdom and its study in various scientific directions and approaches, among which Antsyferova’s studies occupy a special place. It is shown that in the conditions of uncertainty inherent in the world, a wise decision is not only a high level of awareness, not only knowledge, but also intuitive feeling, prediction of events, i.e., in general, comprehension. The phenomenon of comprehension and its understanding in psychology are considered in detail and in detail, the processes of self-understanding and contemplation are analyzed.
Consideration of the problems of self-understanding is impossible without referring to the Self - one of the most mysterious categories, which, like the category of personality, goes far beyond the boundaries of psychological science. Article by EB Starovoitenko "Genesis of the Self in relation to the Other" reveals the author's concept of identifying the forms of this genesis. The article presents a model of the genesis of the I, depending on the completeness and quality of the implementation of the relationship to the Other in the dimensions "between the I and the Other", "I-in-Other", "Other-in-I", "I-in-myself".
Despite its complexity, the problem of the Self is intuitively close to everyone. With the pronunciation of this word, self-awareness in childhood begins. Man pronounces "I" innumerable times daily.
But there are words and concepts that first appeared and then disappeared for a long time from wide word usage. These concepts include "spirituality", a few decades ago almost completely left the limits of Russian-speaking psychology, and after "perestroika" unexpectedly returned to everyday and scientific use.
Moreover, the meaning of the concept has become extremely voluminous and often indefinite, which makes it relevant to conduct a methodological and historical-psychological analysis of this concept. This is partly implemented in the collective scientific publications of the IP RAS (Psychological research ..., 2011; Psychological health ..., 2014; Human psychology in the modern world ..., 2009; and etc.). The problem of the spirituality of a person is revealed in a new way in the article by N. V. Borisova and by A. A. Gostev “The historical and psychological context of the concept of “spiritual personality”: the contribution of the creative heritage of I. A. Ilyin.” The authors compare the understanding of the "spiritual personality" by the founder of this term W. James and the outstanding Russian thinker I. A. Ilyin. The depth, specificity and perspective of the concept of I. A. Ilyin are shown, based on which an analysis of the modern understanding of spirituality and dangerous delusions along this path is given.
The article EN Kholondovich "Personal crises in the life of a genius" also has a historical and psychological character. On the example of the life path and creativity of N.V. Gogol, the productive nature of the crisis experienced by the great writer is shown. Comparing the path of a genius with modern concepts of personality crises, the author comes to the conclusion about the presence and primacy of spiritual and moral changes that determine the nature of the course of the crisis and the way out of it.
In modern works on personality psychology, their continuity with the studies of past years is preserved, which is found in the observance of the logic of the study and its construction on the hypothetical-deductive principle.
Along with the observance of established traditions, new trends appear in modern research on personality psychology . One of them is the study of the personality in the space of its connections, communications with the world in terms of their mutual influence on each other and the equal contribution of both parties to the system of relations; another trend is a typological approach to the study of personality using a whole system of criteria on which personality typology is built; the third trend is the analysis of seemingly atypical dependencies and substantiation of their plausibility when introducing and taking into account additional variables.
In addition, it should be noted that modern personality psychology is actively turning to the study of moral guidelines and their study as regulators of human behavior, as well as factors that determine personal preferences, tastes, values. The trend of convergence of the so-called laboratory research with life makes it possible to increase the external validity of research in the field of personality psychology and at the same time to scientifically substantiate, theoretically comprehend and systematize the entire diversity of the functioning of the individual in society, to show the progressive development of the individual at all stages of life (Phenomenon and the category of maturity ..., 2007) .
Antsyferova's works devoted to the elderly and senile age, the experience of loss in these periods of life are analyzed in the article by NE Kharlamenkova "Experience of loss in old age". In continuation of Antsyferova's research, loss is considered as a difficult life situation, one of the psychological consequences of which is post-traumatic stress.
The results of an empirical study of the psychological consequences of experiencing loss in the periods of middle and late adulthood, as well as the peculiarities of accepting social support by people of different ages, are analyzed in the article in order to establish the position that the most important resource for coping with loss at any, and especially in old age, remains experience of rebuilding relationships with a departed person. It is important to note that this area of research closely intersects with a number of others, and especially with the study of coping behavior, mechanisms for coping with stress and preventing personal burnout, as well as the possibilities of psychological adaptation in the social environment (Bodrov, Dikaya, Zhuravlev, 2012; Psychology of adaptation ..., 2007; Coping behavior…, 2008; Stress, burnout…, 2011).
Complex and ambiguous connections between the subject and existence are analyzed and substantiated in the article by S. K. Nartova-Bochaver “The principle of complementarity in psychology: the interaction of the house and its inhabitants”.
Substantiating the significance of the principle of complementarity for psychology, the author, using the example of the phenomenon of psychological sovereignty and such an existential object as the home environment, shows the variety of relationships between indicators of the friendliness of the home environment and the sovereignty of the individual. The data of a comprehensive empirical study are discussed, which made it possible to identify different mechanisms of interaction between a person and his home and show that the relationship between sovereignty and ontological certainty is of an indirect typological nature.
The decrease in the level of sovereignty of the personality's psychological space (see also: Kupreichenko, Zhuravlev, 2012) may be the result of her negative experience. It is known that one of the psychological consequences of psychotraumatization of a person is post-traumatic stress. However, the effect of high-intensity stressors on a person can also be positive changes - increased resistance to stress and post-traumatic growth.
It was he who became the subject of research Yu. V. Bykhovets , the results of which are presented in the article "The Phenomenon of Post-Traumatic Growth". Changes in self-perception, in relationships with other people, a change in the philosophy of life, as well as the conditions of post-traumatic growth and options for its relationship with post-traumatic stress are considered in detail and differentiated.
In the article MA Padun and AO Petukhova "Regulation of emotions and emotional states in persons with different character accentuations" analyzes the specificity of emotions with different character traits. In the course of a theoretical and empirical study of the problem of regulation of emotions and emotional states (severity of positive / negative affect), carried out from the standpoint of a systematic approach (Lomov, 2006), the authors found that different types of character are characterized by a specific ratio of emotion regulation strategies that reflect the inherent mechanisms for processing emotional reactions and states.
One of the urgent problems of our time is the increasing level of anxiety. Doctors and pharmacists offer their own methods for reducing anxiety. The contribution that the theoretical psychology of personality can make to the solution of this problem is associated with the search for the underlying causes of anxiety, as well as with consideration of the role of anxiety in the life of a person, which will not always have only a negative connotation. More precisely, the question can be formulated as follows: "Is there any sense in anxiety or should it be disposed of by any means?".
Article by M. Yu. Kolpakova "The ontological status of anxiety in personality development" is devoted to the analysis of the constructive nature of anxiety, warning a person about the appearance and development of violations in his spiritual and moral state. The problem of the "double" and the dangers of extreme egoism are analyzed using a dialogical approach on the example of the creative heritage of F.
M. Dostoevsky and A. S. Pushkin.
One of the central issues in modern personality psychology is the problem of identity. Moreover, it requires both theoretical analysis and empirical research into the processes of identity formation, starting from childhood and adolescence.
In the article by O. O. Savina “Peculiarities of the formation of identity in adolescence”, the problematic field of research was the general and specific features of the development of identity in adolescence in comparison with the period of adolescence and taking into account the multidimensionality of identity, which includes cognitive, emotional and evaluative , temporal and behavioral components, role and personal self-categorization. In the process of empirical testing of the research hypotheses, a typology of personality identity was built, based on adolescents' ideas about the stability of their self in time and readiness to make a decision. The age dynamics of identity types during transitions from older adolescence to adolescence and youth is considered.
The determining factor for the successful development of the personality of a growing person is his spiritual and moral state (Morality ..., 2012; Psychological research of morality ..., 2013; Psychology of morality ..., 2010; Yurevich, Zhuravlev, 2013; etc.). In the psychology and pedagogy of the Soviet period, much attention was paid to the issues of moral education. The works of L. I. Bozhovich, S. G. Yakobson, E. V. Chudnovsky and many other authors became classics. In Soviet psychology and pedagogy, research was carried out on such a basic phenomenon for moral development as conscience. At a new stage in the formation of scientific knowledge about spiritual and moral processes, there is a return to the topic of conscience.
The article by L. Sh. Mustafina “Concepts of conscience as an indicator of the moral and psychological state of the individual” on the basis of a structural approach to the study of social perceptions (J.-K. Abrik and others) analyzes social ideas about conscience, their quantitative and content completeness in young people and older people.
Stable, positively colored elements of social representations traditionally inherent in the Russian mentality and their universal nature regardless of age, as well as differences in ideas about conscience between ages, are revealed. The article touches upon the problem of cohort differences in ideas about conscience, substantiates the position that conscience acts as a basic formation of a person, which is directly related to a person's worldview and reflects complex intrapersonal dynamics.
The article by S. A. Barsukova “On the place of conscience in the moral development of a person” is also devoted to the problem of conscience. Note that this author owns the only monograph “Psychology of Conscience” in Russian psychology so far (Barsukova, 2010). The article contains a detailed analysis of the concepts of conscience existing in the humanitarian tradition. The analysis is based on the division of these concepts into sociocentric and anthropocentric .
The results of a small empirical study of ordinary ideas about conscience are presented. Observations about the specifics of representations in different age groups have been published. Of particular interest are children's statements about conscience and the generalization of some subjective experience of conscience experiences of participants of the study of different ages.
The final section of the book includes articles that contain up-to-date knowledge about the studied problems of the personality of a professional and the features of its development in modern social conditions, the psychological well-being of specialists in various professions, highlighting the economic and psychological characteristics of a personality, etc., and also outlines the prospects for further research in this area. The potential of research is determined by the content of scientific data, with the help of which it is possible to build forecasts of personality development and determine the specifics of its functioning in specific social conditions.
The exploratory nature of research lies in the development of new problems and the expansion of the subject field of personality psychology, in the disclosure of psychological mechanisms that are not well understood in modern psychology, but are important for the full development of the individual in changing life circumstances. Discusses the psychological problems faced by a modern person (marginalization of professional life, codependence, ethnic marginalization, etc.), as well as special resources that help to cope with life's difficulties (value-based regulation of psychological well-being, the ability for self-development and autonomy, flexibility and mobility of adaptation personality to new conditions, etc.).
EP Ermolaeva in the article “Personal dynamics in the conditions of marginalization of professional life” raises the problem of personality deformations in connection with professional degradation in modern conditions, unfavorable for the formation of a healthy attitude to work.
The analysis of modern personality problems in the context of changing attitudes towards work and professionalism is carried out from the standpoint of the author's concept of the professional's social realization. A dynamic model of marginalization of a professional's personality is presented, descriptions of empirical examples of coping with tendencies of professional marginalization of a personality are given. This work actually continues and develops a well-known scientific direction of research - the psychology of professional activity and the personality of a professional (Personality of a professional ..., 2013; Methods of psychological support ..., 2014; Problems of fundamental and applied psychology ..., 2008; etc.).
The problems of psychological well-being and its characteristics among representatives of dangerous professions, as well as value orientations as the main predictor of the state of well-being are considered in the article by Yu. The authors confirmed the integral structure of psychological well-being established in the studies of K.
Riff. The results are discussed, according to which the level of psychological well-being among representatives of dangerous professions for certain indicators is not lower, and even exceeds the results of civil professions. The conclusion is substantiated about the leading role of existential factors (meaningful orientations, values, needs, attitudes, etc.) of the psychological well-being of the individual, setting the coordinate system and giving subjective meaning to the activity. It is shown that the psychological well-being of the individual is an "internal", mental phenomenon, a subjective reflection of the external situation, refracted through a system of values, needs and expectations, and is not directly related to the characteristics of the environment.
Questions of the psychological well-being of a person are also related to the problem of his psychological health. This new and actively developed in the last decade in the works of M. I. Volovikova, I. V. Dubrovina, A.
V. Shuvalov, G. S. Nikiforov, I. A. Dzhidaryan and others. a pronounced “Russian tinge” (Psychological health…, 2014). Although the term “psychological health” itself was proposed by A. Maslow, it “took root” with us after the publication of a work prepared under the scientific guidance and editorship of I. V. Dubrovina (Practical Psychology of Education ..., 1997).
The article T.V. Galkina and NG Artemtseva “Personal ideas about psychological health in co-dependent and independent subjects” is devoted to the problems of the psychological health of the individual. The very term "codependence" is new for domestic psychology. It began to be developed by American colleagues to describe individuals who show psychological “dependence” on another person, proceeding according to the principle of other addictions (drug, alcohol, etc.). Thus, co-dependents, according to the authors, can only conditionally be called psychologically healthy people. An original questionnaire was tested to identify personal ideas about psychological health and the results of its application on two samples - co-dependent and independent persons are presented.
The specificity of representations in these groups is revealed. In this article, a serious claim is made for the possibility of empirical research and concretization of a promising, but still insufficiently developed problem of the psychological health of an individual.
A person's positive resources are in close connection with those values that she accepts or rejects. The axiological approach to personality opens up the possibility of a wide range of application of research results in solving practical problems (Trust and distrust ..., 2013; Value bases of psychological science ..., 2008; etc.). One of these possibilities is related to the prediction of the economic behavior of an individual in changing socio-economic conditions.
NA Zhuravleva in the article "Psychological factors of the individual's economic ideas" shows the relationship of a person's value system with his attitude to money. The results of a long (12 years) empirical study of the dynamics of economic ideas in crisis and relatively prosperous periods of recent Russian history (1994–2006) according to a single standardized program (Zhuravlev, Zhuravleva, 2002) are presented.
If we take into account that the cyclical nature of the country's economic development tends to repeat itself, then the results of this study and its conclusions are important not only for the historical psychology of the individual, as the author of the article believes, but also correlate with the problems of predicting a person's economic behavior in today's difficult conditions. The role of psychological factors in his attitude to wealth and economic well-being is shown.
The article by A. N. Tatarko, A. A. Mironova and S. V. Chuvashova “Socio-psychological capital of the individual in the conditions of the ethnic diversity of Russia” also speaks about psychological resources that help the individual. The author's concept of socio-psychological capital is revealed on the basis of the ethnic diversity of modern Russia. The study, conducted on a representative sample (more than 3 thousand people) using modern methods of collecting and processing information, revealed the positive specifics of Russian ethnic diversity.
It is shown that this diversity does not have a negative impact on micro-social and macro-social trust, on the civic identity of the individual, positively affects its tolerance.
The problems caused by the ethno-cultural mosaic of the modern world are also mentioned in the article by A. V. Sukharev “The ethno-functional aspect of the cultural and psychological mechanisms of personality development”. The author's ethno-functional methodology was the basis for the development of tasks and methods of field research conducted by the author on Sakhalin, only a part of the results of which is presented in this article. The connection between the ethno-cultural specifics of the development of the mentality of a person and the formation of moral convictions is shown.
One of the new and promising approaches to the socio-psychological study of personality is holiday psychology . The holiday as a phenomenon of the culture of the people has long been successfully studied in ethnography and cultural studies.
In recent years, psychologists A. M. Borisova, M. I. Volovikova, S. V. Tikhomirova and others have also actively joined the study of the holiday. Personality”, which discusses the features of the holiday that affect the change in emotions, experiences, feelings and other personality traits. Various aspects of the festive culture are highlighted, its mythological nature and special mechanisms of influence on the personality are substantiated. As the main features of the holiday, its role in the moral and ethical formation of the individual, in the development of social identity is called. The transfer of vital moral and ethical principles from one generation to another contributes to the preservation of collective memory, which affects the viability of the people. The feeling of belonging of each person to this or that holiday creates conditions for his awareness of himself as a social being in the ontological unity of I and We and for the development of his individual characteristics.
UDC 159.
923.2
DOI: 10.17072/2078-7898/2018-2-252-263
and Story and perspectives and prospects RESEARCH OF INTEGRAL INDIVIDUALITY WITHIN A SYSTEM APPROACH *
Kalugin Alexey Yurievich
Candidate of Psychological Sciences,
Associate Professor of the Department of Practical Psychology
Perm State Humanitarian and Pedagogical University,
614990, Perm, st. Siberian, 24;
e-mail: [email protected]
ORCID: 0000-0002-3633-2926
The article deals with the main systemic ideas presented in the theory of integral individuality by V.S. Merlin: hierarchy, causal and teleological determination, unambiguous and polymorphic connections, system-forming factor and individual style of activity; the development of these ideas in the works of students and followers of V.S. Merlin. The prospects for the development of the theory of integral individuality are discussed: 1) methodological, outlined by the theorists of the Perm psychological school, and 2) methodological.
The methodological part reveals the ideas of recent times: multi-qualitative and polysystemic approach, generality and integration, polymorphism and isomerism. The methodological aspect is illustrated by a number of modern mathematical and statistical methods that expand the possibilities of studying integral individuality: structural equation modeling, canonical correlation analysis, multidimensional scaling, network (graph) analysis, decision trees and neural networks. To demonstrate these methods, we used data obtained on a sample of 287 students, using two methods that reflect two levels of integral individuality - psychodynamic and personal: FCB-TI (formal characteristics of behavior) by J. Strelyau and "Big Five" adapted by A. B. Khromov. Particular attention is paid to the "meta-analytical approach", which requires scientists to present the results of the study as completely as possible.
Keywords : theory of integral individuality, systemic approach, Perm psychological school.
According to A.V. Karpov, the systematic approach experienced both ups and downs in the course of its historical development [Karpov A.V., 2011]. Formulation of ideas of integral research of individuality V.S. Merlin coincided with the heyday of systemic ideas. At that time, B.F. Lomov writes his famous article "On a systematic approach in psychology" [Lomov B.F., 1975], L. von Bertalanffy promotes the ideas of general systems theory [Bertalanffy L. von., 1968], P.K. Anokhin discusses the methodological foundations of the theory of functional systems [Anokhin P.K., 1978], in cybernetics and computer science, the possibilities of systemicity are actively explored. Thus, V.S. Merlin was immersed in a seething environment of discussion of systemic ideas, and a discussion that was not limited only to the framework of psychology and went beyond the limits of domestic science. Against this background, the ideas put forward by him look quite natural and relevant to the time, moreover, innovative, because.
they opened up new possibilities for applying a systematic approach to the study of human psychology.
Let's look at some of these systems ideas.
The idea of the hierarchy of integral individuality. V.S. Merlin proposed to consider individuality as a set of multi-level properties, starting from the biochemical and ending with the socio-historical level. The idea of hierarchy in psychology is not new; something similar was proposed by B.G. Ananiev (individual - subject - personality - individuality), K.K. Platonov (biopsychic properties - features of mental processes - experience - personality orientation), etc. But it was V.S. Merlin managed to operationalize the hierarchy of integral individuality (AI) he proposed, which transferred his theory from a purely speculative to an empirical plane, i.e. the theory became available for verification.
The idea of single-valued and polymorphic relationships. The operationalization of the theory of integral individuality became possible thanks to the idea of single-valued and multi-valued connections.
V.S. himself Merlin repeatedly pointed out that he borrowed these terms from cyberneticists, mathematicians and apologists for systems theory: N. Bourbaki, L. von Bertalanffy, W.R. Ashby, V.S. Tyukhtin [Merlin V.S., 1986]. However, he managed to translate them from mathematical abstraction into research practice. Let us quote V.S. Merlin about these two types of connections:
“Many-to-many relationship means that each variable of set A is associated with several variables of set B, and each variable of set B is associated with several variables of set A.
Phenomena of the same hierarchical level are connected by one-to-one relationships. The peculiarity of one-to-one relationships is that in any of the compared sets A and B there is always one element with which elements of another set are connected. There are several types of one-to-one relationships: one-to-one, when the variable a is associated only with the variable b, the variable b - only with the variable a; single-valued, when one variable of set A is associated with several variables of set B; multi-unique, when one variable of set B is associated with several variables of set A "[Merlin V.
S., 1980, p. 61].
Connections are shown schematically in fig. 1.
V.S. Merlin identifies two types of determination: causal and teleological. A many-valued connection is determined teleologically, and a one-to-one connection is causally determined. The causal type of determination differentiates individuality, while the teleological one integrates.
We also note that if a single-valued relationship may indicate that properties belong to the same level, then the presence of a multi-valued relationship does not indicate a multi-level properties: “However, there are cases of a multi-valued relationship between some indicators that we attributed to the same level. Therefore, a multi-valued relationship is only a sign of a multi-level properties when there are no single-valued relationships "[Merlin V.S., 1980, p. 62].
Fig. 1. Types of property links in integral individuality: a) multi-valued (polymorphic) link; b) one-to-one; c) single-valued; d) one-to-one relationship
System-forming factor and individual style of activity.
P.K. Anokhin actively criticized the systemic ideas of L. von Bertalanffy for the lack of a system-forming factor in them [Anokhin P.K., 1978]. This shortcoming was overcome in the theory of V.S. Merlin: the system-forming factor is named one of the key mechanisms for the integration of individuality.
V.S. Merlin believed that an individual style of activity acts as an intermediary in building interlevel connections. Later it was proved that, in addition to the individual style of activity, individual styles of activity and communication can be such intermediaries [Vyatkin B.A., Shchukin M.R., 2013]. The development of the theory of style within the framework of a systematic approach led to the understanding that a holistic description of style is based on the identification of three polysystems:
1) style of activity - an integral individuality,
2) style of activity - external conditions and requirements of activity,
3) integral individuality - external conditions and requirements of activity [Vyatkin B.
A., Shchukin M.R., 2013, p. 9].
Thus, the case of V.S. Merlin was continued by his students and followers. Conferences devoted to the systematic study of individuality were held regularly [see. for example: System research…, 1991]. A new problem was actively discussed - systematic studies of human activity.
Further integral studies of individuality showed that polysystemic nature plays an important role in its development. Both intra-individuality and meta-individuality have been carefully studied. The transition from integral to polysystemic research required a qualitatively different approach, first of all, integral individuality had to be considered in the context of other systems in which it is included: integral individuality and another integral individuality, AI - the world around, AI - social environment, AI - individual style, AI - professional abilities, etc. [ Polysystem research…, 2005].
As part of the issue under discussion, it is important to note the prospects for the development of AI theory and the main system ideas of V.
S. Merlin. Here we will largely rely on the work of B.A. Vyatkina and L.Ya. Dorfman 2016–2017
- Multi-quality and multi-system approach. According to the principle of duality of qualitative certainty V.P. Kuzmin, any phenomenon can be considered in different coordinate systems: for example, in a monosystem and in a polysystem form. “Polysystemic knowledge is multifocal, multilevel, multidimensional, polydeterminant” [Vyatkin B.A., Dorfman L.Ya., 2017, p. 153]. Integral individuality fully reflects this principle, however, in terms of empirical study, the issue of multidimensionality has not yet been fully resolved.
- Generality and integration. Two understandings of the general are connected with this: 1) the general as having a smaller number of properties, but a greater capacity; 2) general as having a larger volume, but poorer content. Probably, in the case of AI, we are dealing with the second definition of the general, i.
e. the variability of interlevel properties will be greater than the variability between the properties of the same level [Vyatkin B.A., Dorfman L.Ya., 2016, p. 12–13]. According to the criterion of variability, within the same level, properties can be found that perform different tasks in AI: some properties will differentiate the levels and reflect their specifics, while others will integrate, being at the intersection of levels. A number of attempts to study this phenomenon have been made [Dorfman L.Ya., 2016; Dorfman L.Ya., Kalugin A.Yu., 2016; Dorfman L.Ya., Lyadov V.N., 2015], however, additional research is required. - Polymorphism and isomerism. “Isomerism is one of the varieties of polymorphism. The essence of isomerism lies in the fact that the same composition of components can serve as the basis for different phenomena, depending on how the components are interconnected” [Vyatkin B.A., Dorfman L.Ya., 2017, p. 155]. In other words, “within the framework of the phenomenon of isomerism, it can be assumed that there is not one, but several configurations of the same general (interlevel) properties” [Vyatkin B.
A., Dorfman L.Ya., 2016, p. fifteen].
In addition to the methodological problem discussed above, it is important to consider the methodological component of systemic research. Let us note some mathematical and statistical possibilities for the study of individuality within the framework of a systematic approach.
To demonstrate the methods given below, we used data obtained by us on 287 respondents - students of Perm secondary and higher educational institutions aged 18 to 26 years (M = 21.51; SD = 2.22), of which 181 were girls and 106 were boys.
Two levels of AI are considered: 1) psychodynamic, represented by the properties of the temperament of the FCB-TI method (formal characteristics of behavior) by J. Strelyau [Strelyau Y. et al., 2009], and 2) personal, represented by the features of the "Big Five" in adaptation A.B. Khromov [Khromov A.B., 2000].
Statistical processing and visualization was carried out using the IBM SPSS Statistics 22 program and the IBM SPSS AMOS 22 add-on, as well as using a number of statistical packages implemented in the R language: CCA, rgl, psych, igraph, rpart, rpart.
plot, neuralnet and NeuralNetTools.
Traditionally, in the study of multilevel properties of AI in the Perm school of psychology, correlation and factor analyzes are widely used, but recently new methods of data analysis have appeared that can help in the study of polymorphic relationships and isomerism. We note right away that the models proposed below are of a simplified nature and are designed to demonstrate the capabilities of the mathematical apparatus; they are not complete studies that prove anything.
Modeling by structural equations (structural equation modeling, SEM) seems to be one of the promising methods for studying inter-level relationships in integral individuality. Some progress in the study of polymorphic relationships using SEM has already been achieved [Dorfman L.Ya., 2016; Dorfman L.Ya., Kalugin A.Yu., 2016; Dorfman L.Ya., Lyadov V.N., 2015]. An example of such modeling is shown in fig. 2.
Figure 2 shows that "emotionality", one of the features of the "Big Five", tends more to the factor of temperamental properties than to personal characteristics, at the same time, "activity" is more determined by the factor F1 than F2.
The greatest weight in F1 has "playfulness", in F2 - "emotional reactivity". "Sensory sensitivity" is loosely related to a factor involving temperament properties.
Investigation of the relationship of multi-level properties can be carried out using canonical correlation analysis , since this analysis allows you to study the relationship between two sets! It was tested within the framework of the ideology of the integral study of individuality in the study of A.Yu. Popov [Popov A.Yu., 2010].
Another statistical method - multidimensional scaling - allows you to visualize the spatial relationships between different levels of AI properties, including in three-dimensional representation.
Fig. 2. Modeling by structural equations
Note:
personality traits : Prvzn - attachment, Kntrl - control, Igv - playfulness, Extra - extraversion, Emtsnl - emotionality;
properties of temperament : Em_rktv - emotional reactivity, Aktvn - activity, Dnmch - dynamism, Nstch - persistence, S_chvst - sensory sensitivity, Vnsl - endurance
Analysis of networks (graphs) could replace the traditional correlation pleiades, especially since it allows, using some algorithms, to determine the spatial relationships of properties (Fig.
3).
3. a correlation graph is presented, where the thickness of the lines reflects the severity of the correlation coefficient; straight and dotted lines - the direction of the relationship; graph vertex size — the number of significant relationships; the color of the vertices - belonging to the psychodynamic or personal level of AI. At the same time, this graph is a full-fledged statistical model with which various manipulations can be performed, for example, one of the force placement algorithms, the Früchtermann–Reingold algorithm, can be used (Fig. 4).
Here, the strength of the links is reflected not only in the thickness of the lines, but also in the distance between the properties. Attention is drawn to the fact that "emotionality" is closely related to the block of temperamental properties: "emotional reactivity", "persistence", "endurance" and "dynamic"; emotionality has weaker connections with personality traits. In turn, "extroversion", "playfulness", "attachment" and "control" create their own block of closely related properties.
"Activity" has numerous relationships both with the properties of temperament and with personality traits, occupying an intermediate position between them (in terms of the strength of the connection, this property is more likely to relate to personality than to temperament). "Sensory sensitivity" is equidistant from both personality traits and temperament properties; perhaps this indicates that this property belongs to another level of AI: in particular, a number of researchers point to a high correlation of this characteristic with the properties of the nervous system [Zawadzki B., Strelau J., 2010].
Fig. 3. Correlation graph
4. Correlation graph using the Frühtermann–Reingold algorithm
Separately, we should consider the possibilities of studying the style characteristics of AI. In this part, we turn to mathematical methods that simulate the work of the brain, and given that most levels of AI somehow have neural representation, these methods have great heuristic potential.
Style is often determined using factor analysis [Ismagilova A.G., 2003; Vasyura S.A., 2013, etc.] or cluster analysis is used: for example, when studying the style of responding to M.I. Bazhenova and M.R. Shchukin singled out "adaptive" and "maladaptive" styles [Bazhenova M.I., Shchukin M.R., 2011]. Preliminary selection of style by other methods is necessary for its further use in the analyzes considered below.
Decision trees. Regression and classification decision trees allow you to specify one or another style as an output and determine the most significant style predictors, which are multi-level personality properties. There is no style information in our dataset, so an example based on gender differentiation is considered, which fully reflects the decision tree construction mechanism (Fig. 5). We also note that the issue of sex and gender has a rich history in the Perm psychological school and was even reflected in the monograph of 2008 [ Paul and Gender…, 2008].
Fig. 5. Decision tree
What does this decision tree tell us? "Emotionality" may have different connections in boys and girls with other multi-level personality traits, however, when considering the tree, it becomes obvious that this is the leading characteristic that differentiates gender. Extrapolating this mechanism to the study of style characteristics, we can assume the discovery of properties that play a key role in the differentiation of styles.
Neural networks. Neural networks are of particular interest for the integral study of individuality. On fig. Figure 6 shows the architecture of the neural network, which has three layers: input, hidden and output. On the hidden layer, there are two artificial neurons that process the information coming from the input neurons and then transmit it to the output layer. Although the weight coefficients of connections between neurons are set randomly, as the network is trained, they become more and more meaningful.
To a certain extent, hidden neurons can be considered as factors generalizing primary data. However, unlike factor analysis, relationships can be non-linear (in this case, the logistic function is used as an activation function). Let us also pay attention to the fact that the neurons of the input layer are not directly connected with each other, but are connected indirectly, through hidden neurons (some system-forming factors). It is also important that the same input parameters with different output conditions lead to a completely different system configuration.
7, the thickness of the connection characterizes the severity of the weights, and the color characterizes the direction (black - positive weight, blue - negative). Even this simple network predicts gender with 73.6% accuracy for the test sample!
Olden J.D. et al., 2004] allows you to visualize the significance of predictors (Fig. 7).
The graph shows that the key characteristics that distinguish boys from girls are: emotionality, sensory sensitivity and attachment - which is consistent with our results for the decision tree.
In addition to the indicated possibilities of the mathematical apparatus for studying AI, there is also a serious problem associated with integral studies of individuality. Modern science is moving to a new level of hypothesis testing, in which a single study stands in a series of many other studies that also consider this problem. We are talking about the so-called "meta-analytical approach" [Korneev A.A. et al., 2016; Kornilov S.A., Kornilova T.V., 2013; Kornilova T.V., 2010; Cumming G., 2012; Kline R.B., 2013, etc.]. Meta-analysis requires a number of parameters to be specified in the papers, for example, an exact, rather than rounded, level of significance, reduction of effect sizes, and descriptive statistics. A significant amount of serious research has been carried out within the framework of AI theory, and it is extremely important to use them to generalize and comprehend scientific truth. Therefore, it is important to present the results as fully as possible in order to be able to further work with them and the possibility of subsequent replication of studies.
In this article, we would like to highlight the history of the development of systemic ideas in the theory of integral individuality, point out the prospects for the development of the theory outlined by the methodologists of the Perm psychological school, as well as a number of methodological points related to the study of multilevel properties of individuality.
Fig. 6. Neural networks
7. The significance of predictors according to D. Alden
Summing up, we can say with confidence that today some vectors of a systematic study of individuality have been set. Works within the framework of new directions are being actively carried out and the results obtained can enrich not only the theory of AI, but also science in general, because will bring us closer to understanding a person who is part of a polysystemic space.
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