Types of cognitive

5) dependent - prefers structured programs and assignments with well-defined forms of control by the teacher;

6) independent - prefers influence the content and structure curriculum using help teachers as an additional resource.

Cognitive tasks and their types

download Author: Goncharuk S.I. - subscribe to the author's articles
Journal: Philosophy and Society. Issue No. 2(23)/2001 - subscribe to articles of the journal

Modern research and educational literature includes the concept of " cognitive tasks ", which means a certain target setting in solving a particular research problem. The concept of a cognitive task differs from the concept of a scientific problem. The latter is defined as a situation that has arisen in science as a result of a contradiction between the achieved level of theoretical understanding of a particular area of ​​reality and the discovery of new facts that do not fit into the framework of previous theoretical ideas. The development of a complex scientific problem is associated with the formulation of a number of cognitive tasks, the solution of which organizes all the actions of the researcher into a system of scientific search. nine0003

The setting of specific cognitive tasks is characteristic of scientific research. A preliminary mental, theoretical attitude in the study of the phenomena of nature and society, in understanding their connection in an explicit form, is not characteristic of spontaneous empirical knowledge. In the latter case, the discovery of new facts or properties takes place, but usually happens intentionally, as if by accident. In scientific research, certain cognitive tasks are solved, arising from the goals set, which, ultimately, are determined by the needs of practice and the development of science. nine0003

Any goal-setting activity, including labor, certainly sets certain tasks for the subject of activity, which can be called practical, the solution of which is preceded by the development of a plan, ways and means of its solution.

Note that any practical activity as goal-setting includes knowledge at a certain level about the subject of activity. In this sense, a practical task before its solution must be comprehended and mastered by practical experience at the level of a particular technology. This connection between theory and practice, knowledge and action is the subject of special philosophical reflection. In a scientific experiment, this problem includes precisely those questions that are preliminarily comprehended by the experimenters and are called philosophical. nine0003

Cognitive tasks can be very different. This is the preliminary collection of data on the properties of the phenomenon under study, and the verification of assumptions, and the development of new hypotheses to explain the discovered facts, and the logical analysis of statements in order to identify their validity. A specific cognitive task in practical medicine, for example, is the diagnosis of a disease.

In scientific research, great importance is attached to the development of constructive cognitive tasks, the solution of which allows the discovery or scientific explanation of newly discovered or long-known facts. nine0003

The development of methodological problems of scientific research brings to the fore the study of questions about the essence of cognitive tasks and their types[1]. In the methodological literature on scientific research, there are now four types of cognitive tasks: empirical, theoretical, constructive, and logical.

The essence of empirical cognitive tasks is to identify and describe facts about the object of study based on observation, measurement and experiment. Comprehension of the object of knowledge in many sciences begins with the establishment of facts, which, according to IP Pavlov, constitute the air of a scientist. A scientific fact is “a special kind of position fixing empirical knowledge”[2]. nine0003

The received information is usually processed with the help of statistical methods, which make it possible to further obtain generalizing data, comprehending which the researcher rises to the highest level of knowledge - the theoretical level.

“We all agree,” F. Engels wrote, “that in any scientific field of nature, as well as in the field of history, it is necessary to proceed from the facts given to us , therefore, in natural science - from various objective forms of the movement of matter , and that, consequently, also in theoretical natural science, one cannot construct connections and introduce facts into them, but one must extract them from facts and, having found them, prove them, as far as possible, empirically” [3]. nine0003

Scientific knowledge, in contrast to ordinary and spontaneous-empirical knowledge, is brought into a certain system and interpreted on the basis of certain philosophical and epistemological points of view, the totality of which is a methodological concept.

The epistemological concept is connected with the materialistic or idealistic solution of the fundamental question of philosophy. On its basis, the problems of the relationship between the object and the subject of cognition, objective and subjective, are solved. It can be dialectical or metaphysical, materialistic or idealistic. nine0003

Any science in its origin and development is associated with certain methodological foundations. The methodological position of a scientist largely determines the object and subject of knowledge, the direction of research, the choice of methods for obtaining and testing knowledge, ways of interpreting and further developing it. Methodological foundations in a particular science are introduced and included in the general system of its knowledge in the process of the history of its origin and development. This process is influenced by the main components of all cognitive activity: the level of development of social practice and the generalization of its data in various forms of social consciousness, including in the dominant philosophical views of representatives of scientific schools and trends. Religious ideas, the entire cultural tradition of a given country or people can also have a serious impact. nine0003

Empirical cognitive tasks are also solved on the basis of certain methodological concepts, which the scientist consciously or spontaneously adheres to. They can be both scientific and non-scientific, contribute to the solution of a research problem or hinder its solution.

Each philosophical epistemological and methodological concept formulates the principles of scientific research activity on the basis of one or another solution to the main question of philosophy. True, these principles can be refuted by a research scientist. The law of conservation of matter, formulated by M. V. Lomonosov and Lavoisier, itself already sets the direction for the study of physical and chemical processes, orienting them towards the recognition of the material unity of the world, the discovery of the objective properties of matter, refutes the introduction of fictitious properties into the knowledge system, such as phlogiston or life-giving force. nine0003

The structure of the methodological foundations in scientific research is quite complex. It includes philosophical, logical and private-scientific foundations, which form their own spheres of approaches and assessments to the facts obtained. These grounds interact with each other at the level of recognition of the priority of the epistemological concept.

The dialectical-materialist philosophical concept points to a number of methodological principles for the scientific solution of empirical cognitive problems. Among them is the objectivity of consideration, which requires that empirical information reflect the properties and features inherent in the object of study itself. This is achieved by using various instruments in observation and experiment, although, as is known, in the study of the phenomena of the microcosm, the use of instruments introduces certain difficulties in revealing the objective properties of micro-objects. nine0003

Requirements for the correspondence of empirical information to the objectives of the study are oriented towards a strict selection of facts that contribute to the solution of the task. Such facts should be essential to the process, not accidental.

The principle of theoretical validity of empirical knowledge consists in the requirement to proceed from theoretical ideas about a given subject area when formulating a specific empirical problem. It is an organic moment of the unity of empirical and theoretical knowledge. These general theoretical principles are directed against the subjective-idealistic and metaphysical interpretation of the essence of knowledge. We also note the difficulties of collecting and describing the facts of social life, since their vision and understanding depend on the theoretical preparedness of the researcher. The testimonies of eyewitnesses of events or their participants also cannot be interpreted as a basis for an objective reflection of a particular historical event. So, about the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945, which was waged by the peoples of the USSR and its army against German fascism, various authors give different assessments, up to the opposite. In such cases, the author's point of view is based on insufficient knowledge about the event, taking into account only minor aspects of the phenomenon. "Trench Truth" still does not give a deep understanding of the general plan of the entire military operation, known only to a narrow circle of people.

It is impossible to assess the economic condition of the country's citizens on the basis of establishing the facts that store shelves are filled with goods in the absence of queues in them. It is necessary to know the purchasing power of the citizens of the country, the principles of remuneration for their labor, the employment of the population in productive activities, the way of life of the people, etc. It is true that greatness is seen at a distance. The significance of a historical event is determined by its consequences, not by statements about what is expected. nine0003

Theoretical cognitive tasks are related to the identification of deep types of connections, essential relationships and interdependencies between objects and their properties. Here the goal is to reveal the causal, regular connection of phenomena, to distinguish the necessary from the accidental and understand their relationship, to reveal the relationship between content and form, structure and function, external and internal, etc. The solution of theoretical problems is ultimately aimed at developing such forms of knowledge, as a hypothesis, law, theory. On the basis of this knowledge, it becomes possible to explain an object or process, to foresee their changes or transformations, “to manage them”. nine0003

Of course, on the way to the discovery of laws, the development of scientific hypotheses and theoretical concepts, a number of cognitive empirical and theoretical problems are first solved. At the same time, the basis of their solution is ultimately the data of the empirical level of knowledge. However, the substantiation of a theoretical cognitive task involves going beyond the scope of directly observable facts. Theoretical cognitive tasks are solved on the basis of such cognitive methods as abstraction, idealization, formalization, analysis and synthesis, analogy, comparison, modeling, systematic approach, etc.

Understanding the difference between empirical and theoretical cognitive tasks in scientific research is of great methodological importance, it helps to understand the stages of the formation of knowledge, reveals the structure of scientific knowledge, and contributes to the conscious use of the laws of its development. It is known that the accumulation of empirical material, its description and classification according to certain features are the first step in the birth and development of special sciences. According to F. Engels, “in each separate field of research, there has become a downright irremovable need to arrange this material systematically and in accordance with its internal connection. In the same way, the task of bringing individual areas of knowledge into the correct connection with each other becomes unavoidable. But, having taken up this task, natural science enters the theoretical realm, and here empirical methods turn out to be powerless, here only theoretical thinking can help.[4] nine0003

At the same time, it was found that the scientific solution of the problem of theoretical understanding of empirical material in one area or another (especially in physics, chemistry, biology, social sciences, etc.) becomes possible only from the standpoint of dialectics. This situation was most clearly analyzed by I. Kant in the Critique of Pure Reason.

Difficulties and errors in the development of scientific views on the phenomena of nature and society were largely associated with the influence of the metaphysical method of thinking and idealistic epistemology on the thinking of the scientist. However, starting from the 19th century, a breakthrough appeared in the development of the methodology of scientific knowledge, which was associated with the philosophical discoveries of G. F. Hegel, L. Feuerbach, K. Marx, F. Engels. In the writings of these philosophers, as well as in the works of A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, questions of the methodology of scientific knowledge become the subject of scientific research. nine0003

Methodological requirements for solving theoretical cognitive problems that guide the researcher are contained in the principles of dialectical logic that underlie the dialectical method. Among them is the unity of logical and historical, abstract and concrete, analysis and synthesis, idealization, extrapolation, etc. items. Thanks to this principle, the most general concepts are formed, with the help of which the laws of science are developed, various theoretical concepts are built. Thus, the disclosure of the process of development in society and the formulation of its laws are connected with the understanding of the very concept of "society", "the structure of society" (the constituent elements of the whole), "methods of interaction and interconnection of the constituent structures". The concept of "public relations" contributes to the disclosure of the specifics of society as a system that is different from biological communities (herding). On the basis of such an analysis, it was concluded that the development of society cannot be understood as any changes taking place in it (for example, an increase or decrease in the number of population), but should be interpreted as qualitative transformations of the main types of social relations into other states that have a qualitatively new systemic connection. The researchers noted that the change in the forms of ownership of the main tools and means of production leads to the establishment of a new type of production, economic relations. In such cases, the nature of social relations in all types of activity, social, political, etc., differs from the previous one. We also note that the study of this particular scientific problem should be continued. nine0003

In the author's opinion, a deeper study of this type of social relations, such as social relations, which have a complex structure that distinguishes them from political and economic ones, is required. In socio-political literature, the concepts of "public" and "social" are often used as synonyms and do not indicate significant differences in the laws of functioning of one or another type of social relations.

Thus, with the help of the abstraction method, any phenomenon is comprehended comprehensively, since its connection with other phenomena is established. The summation, the synthesis of these connections, expressing an essential relationship, already gives us an idea of ​​a specific relationship. For example, it is possible to trace the development of capitalist property relations from the birth of capitalism to the present day. At present, interethnic monopolies have arisen, and a certain part of the workers have become shareholders of enterprises whose fixed capital belongs to one or a group of owners. nine0003

Idealization as a method of cognition means, firstly, the process of forming assumptions and assumptions, and, secondly, the process of creating special, idealized objects. In the second case, idealization means the transition to some definite, but in reality, impracticable limiting value of the property. In science, such concepts as "ideal gas", "absolutely black body", etc., obtained on the basis of idealization, are often used. With the help of idealization, such cognitive tasks as the discovery of the laws of nature and society are solved. When identifying the features of the law, they are distracted from insignificant, random, temporary connections and relationships that always take place, characterizing the features of a particular phenomenon, its uniqueness. It is known that K. Marx used this method of studying the laws of development of capitalism, taking as a basis its formation in the conditions of England, which was the first to pave the way to a society different from feudalism. nine0003

When applying the method of idealization in the cognition of the laws of society, it must be borne in mind that the general as a limiting case of relations always manifests itself in the special, which is created by a specific spatio-temporal determination and requires special studies. It does not cancel the general, since the general exists both in the individual and in the particular. But the manifestation of a particularity poses the researcher the task of identifying the paths of movement of the general, and there may be several of them. A specific feature can give a new variant of the development of the process, previously unknown to science. So, for example, the process of development of capitalist relations in agriculture in Russia is "burdened" by its natural and climatic features and the archetype of life arrangement in almost all basic types of life activity that require the collectivist efforts of the social subject. In fact, neither the Prussian nor the American ways of capitalizing agricultural production turned out to be unacceptable for Russia. It is this feature of the development of the Russian village that explains why on October 19In 1717, the vast majority of peasants accepted the political slogans of the Bolsheviks, and not the political parties that supported the policy of the Provisional Government of Russia. The same circumstance explains why Stolypin's reforms failed in Russia, and in the days of "perestroika" and "reforms" there is no farming of the Russian countryside. Historically, only the colonial path of capitalism can develop in Russia, which is confirmed by the pre-October and "perestroika" history of the country. Any attempts by politicians to explain the history of our country by deceit or gullibility of the main working masses of the country cannot be accepted when understanding the features of Russian civilization. The capitalization of Russia will lead to its destruction as a single multinational community, weakening its status as a separate geopolitical unit. nine0003

We also note that extrapolation also means the extension of theoretical conclusions related to the studied facts to new facts of this kind or to a wider area of ​​reality, including in the form of forecasts (assumptions about the future). It is known that

K. Marx, studying the development of capitalism on the example of one country, made general theoretical conclusions about the operation of the laws of the functioning of capitalism as a common economic system for the countries of Western Europe. Later, he agreed with the conclusions of the Russian revolutionaries that our country, in the transition to socialism, could bypass the developed capitalist stage. The history of the USSR provides rich material for understanding the ways in which general trends in the history of the socialization of the means of production and the ways in which distribution relations in society develop. nine0003

At present, the peculiarities of the development of capitalism in the countries of Southeast Asia are being studied, the specifics of transnational monopoly capitalism, which has established itself in Indonesia, Hong Kong, Malaysia and other countries, is being revealed. Here we meet with a new way of the international division of labor, when the achievements of electronics can connect the economies of the planet and previously backward countries to the dollar regulation. The current unipolar world is fraught with an ecological catastrophe for mankind. The sustainable nature of world development is possible only in a bipolar world. nine0003

The extrapolation method plays an important role in the construction of theoretical concepts in the natural sciences. For example, many laws of physics are extrapolated to wider areas of nature, to astrophysics, geology. And those, in turn, extend not only to the stellar worlds or planetary systems, but also to their past and foreseeable future. Each historical period in the development of science has its own specific ideals and methodological approaches to understanding reality. Nowadays, humanity is entering the era of awareness of its cognitive activity from the standpoint of synergetics, based on the ideas of systemicity, the integrity of the world and scientific knowledge, the commonality of the patterns of development of objects at all levels of material and spiritual organization. Mankind is developing a new, synergetic style of thinking, including the laws of science and their interaction. nine0003

Through analysis, the content of the studied phenomena is divided and differentiated both at the empirical and theoretical levels. Analytical cognitive actions are aimed at identifying and classifying various characteristics, at studying their qualitative and quantitative features. With the help of analysis, internal, essential connections are revealed, on the basis of which it is possible to reveal the law of phenomena or develop a theory, which takes place already at the stage of synthesis, i.e., the generalization of acquired knowledge. Here a deeper and fuller knowledge of the concrete is attained. nine0003

The solution of a number of theoretical problems requires that the process under study receive a developed form, because only the formed integrity (system) will make it possible to identify the main connections and interdependencies of its functioning. K. Marx's point is absolutely correct that the discovery of the law of value became possible as a result of developed commodity production, as a result of which the dependence of commodity producers on each other became obvious. Separate private producers, acting independently of each other, but bound by the developed division of labor, were finally able to identify the basis for self-regulation of these relations - a proportional measure for the exchange of the products of their work. The present is always connected with the past, with the history of its formation. Therefore, the logical in its removed form contains the historical process of the development of the phenomenon. What market regulator of economic relations can be discussed if there is no interdependence of producers in the regions or the country as a whole? nine0003

Knowledge gained in solving empirical and theoretical problems is interpreted on the basis of a certain logical-epistemological and worldview methodological concept. Their adequacy and completeness of the description of the object under study, interpretability and verifiability, truth and reliability, as well as information content are determined. The acquired knowledge is evaluated from the point of view of existing ideas about the object of study, their influence on other theories and hypotheses is revealed.

Summarizing the history of the development of dialectical materialist methodology, it is necessary to formulate the basic principles that underlie the acquisition, construction and analysis of scientific knowledge. First of all, these are the principles of objectivity of consideration, knowability, determinism, development, historicism, partisanship, unity of theory and practice.

The principle of objectivity in dialectical-materialistic epistemology expresses the recognition of the objectivity of truth, that is, such content of knowledge that does not depend on man and mankind. This provision means that the world exists independently of a person and is reflected in his mind on the basis of practical activity. Moreover, this reflection can be adequate to the thing and its properties. From the point of view of this principle, such concepts of science as the object of study, its subject, thing, properties were formed. Relationships, as well as the categories of scientific epistemology: objective truth, relative and absolute truth, concrete truth, etc. These categories reflect the results of cognitive activity and allow us to substantiate their truly objective criterion. nine0003

The concept of objectivity in the philosophy of objective idealism is associated with the recognition of the existence of an absolute idea, which, under certain conditions, is embodied in one or another subjective spirit. Subjective idealism reduces the objective to universally valid knowledge. The principles of objectification of the subjective spirit and universal validity do not withstand scientific verification, since delusion can also be universally valid, and whether the subjective spirit coincides with the objective absolute idea is determined on the basis of the accepted logical system of movement of the concept by the triad method. Neopositivists substantiate the truth of knowledge by “verification” or “falsification”, which is associated with the identification of the relationship of the concept with the data of sensory experience and the achievement of logical consistency of statements about the properties of the subject. nine0003

Modern science most often uses the methodology of dialectical materialism to explain the acquired knowledge, which is associated with an accurate indication of the initial principles of cognition and criteria for evaluating the results of knowledge about the object of study.

The principle of the material unity of the world indicates the epistemological meaning of the concept of matter, while emphasizing the essence of the ideal as a copy, image of the material. And this position is proved by the whole history of the development of natural science and philosophy. nine0003

The essence of the principle of knowability is to substantiate the absence of a fundamental boundary between the phenomenon and the “thing in itself”. The learning process is endless. It goes from the phenomenon to the essence, from the essence of the first order to the essence of the second order, and so on without end. From one relative truth to another, more complete and more accurately reflecting the properties of phenomena. Human sense organs, his mind, the successes of industry and agriculture, science and technology show the boundlessness of human knowledge. nine0003

The deterministic approach in cognition means that some established characteristics (scientific facts) must be placed in a strictly defined dependence on others, that a change in one property is caused by a change in others. Along with causality, this principle includes structural and functional approaches to the study of phenomena.

The principles of development and historicism require tracing qualitative changes and transformations of the studied phenomena in time and space. However, the requirement of the principles of development and historicism should not be identified, although they are closely related to each other. If the principle of development orients the researcher to the discovery of changes, transitions, transformations, then the principle of historicism focuses on the fact that the unity, the connection of qualitatively different stages that the phenomenon under study has passed in its development is traced, so that it is studied in the genetic aspect. nine0003

The principle of party spirit in cognition and, consequently, in solving any cognitive task is that the researcher, whether he realizes it or not, always adheres to certain epistemological and methodological guidelines, from the positions of which he organizes and interprets the knowledge received. It should be emphasized that the non-scientific worldview, idealistic and metaphysical principles create serious difficulties in the development of knowledge, and ultimately lead to crises in the sciences. nine0003

The principle of the unity of theory and practice expresses the interdependence of object-sensory and cognitive-theoretical activity, as a result of which the material of observations, measurements and experiment is accumulated and the problem of its comprehension at the level of one or another entity is solved.

These methodological principles contain knowledge that makes it possible to construct existing representations into a system based on more general concepts, the content of which is to some extent expressed in these principles. Thus, the methodological function of these principles consists in their ability to synthesize, organize knowledge into a deductive system of a conceptual series (or set). nine0003

Methodological principles are included by their content in the knowledge of sciences. The concepts of physics and mechanics are filled with the content of specific knowledge at a certain level of reflection. The concepts of "body" and "field" distinguish the qualitative states of matter. They are not interchangeable, but are related to the category "matter". Any specific science, as synthesizing principles, can proceed from the most general laws that characterize one or another form of the movement of matter - mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, social. nine0003

Such a role in the natural sciences is played, for example, by the law of conservation and transformation of energy, the connection between mass and motion, etc. superstructure.

The whole system of philosophical knowledge, since it does not act as a means of solving special cognitive and practical tasks in a particular science, performs primarily a general methodological function that determines the strategy of science and the nature of the interpretation of facts. The effectiveness of its implementation depends on the nature of the philosophical system, the degree of its scientific character, as well as on the philosophical richness of the theoretical field of natural and social sciences. nine0003

A special type of research tasks are the creation, design of ways, methods, techniques for synthesizing new knowledge, i.e., the introduction of new features, relationships, signs into the system of existing conceptual relationships, due to which the volume of previous ideas about the subject expands. This kind of cognitive tasks some scientists call constructive . There are a number of sciences that explore the constructive abilities of thinking, formulating methods for solving theoretical concepts to explain the phenomena of nature and society[5]. nine0003

F. Engels rightly noted that the actual empirical material accumulated in a certain area requires streamlining and systematization, that is, raising it to the level of theoretical generalization [6].

The construction of theoretical knowledge in one form or another (in the form of a hypothesis, law, private or general theory) is a transition to a systematic logical substantiation of a number of facts, finding the common in them and its expression in a system of certain concepts. The solution of this problem is associated with the use of modeling, analogy, comparison. One of the forms of constructive tasks is the development of a hypothesis. According to D. I. Mendeleev, hypotheses “give harmony and simplicity, which are difficult to achieve without their assumption. The whole history of science shows this. Therefore, we can safely say: it is better to stick to such a hypothesis, which may turn out to be wrong in time, than none. Hypotheses facilitate and make correct scientific work – the search for truth, just as the farmer’s plow facilitates the cultivation of useful plants”[7]. nine0003

Scientific hypotheses pave the way for the formulation of the laws of science, which bring the relationship of the sides of the essence into unity, single out the general, stable, repetitive, and get rid of the secondary, changeable.

The formation of ideas about the law as a theory begins with the synthesis of facts based on the categorically logical apparatus of a particular science, often with the use of mathematics. The theory, as a rule, implements explanatory, predictive and synthesizing functions.

In any scientific research, when solving empirical, theoretical, constructive cognitive tasks, logical cognitive tasks also arise. Their essence is reduced to the analysis of logical-conceptual and linguistic means of expressing knowledge, methods and rules for its construction and proof (features of knowledge, rules of logical consequence).

The concept of "logical problems of science" refers to the tasks of research (analysis) of logical forms of thinking used in a given science, their structures,

as well as logical methods of building knowledge (deductive, inductive, analogy, hypothesis).

There are two groups of cognitive logical tasks. One group of such problems arises in the deductive sciences (mathematics, logic). They basically come down to the study of the logical foundations of these sciences (axioms, postulates), as well as the rules for the logical operation of knowledge and the rules for constructing an inference. These problems may also arise in the empirical sciences, in which the mathematical apparatus is widely used. nine0003

The second type of logical cognitive tasks is associated mainly with the empirical sciences. Such tasks are faced by the researcher during the logical comprehension of the initial knowledge, which constitutes a necessary condition for the formulation of a scientific problem (what is this or that statement in a certain system of knowledge: the initial principle, hypothesis, inferential knowledge, etc.). The lack of skills in the logical analysis of knowledge creates certain difficulties in assessing the hypotheses put forward and the formulated laws. A number of logical tasks are conditioned by the very organization of scientific research. These tasks are associated with the identification of the rules for formulating cognitive tasks, the studied forms of inferences that are used in their solution, with the establishment of means for verifying the laws obtained. nine0003

It is known, for example, that when selecting and classifying the symptoms of a disease (facts), as well as when determining a diagnosis, a doctor operates with his knowledge and logical and linguistic means of expressing them. Comparing the identified symptoms of the disease with the nosological regular conditions known to medical science, he must logically substantiate these symptoms as the result of the manifestation of this particular disease, and not another.

Revealing the course of the researcher's thinking in its logical division in the construction of hypotheses or theories is one of the important scientific problems. Its solution enables each scientist to control the logic of their cognitive actions. A number of logical problems arise when constructing a theory, formulating laws, developing hypotheses. They are associated with the development of the conceptual apparatus used to build a logically coherent system of knowledge. This includes issues of definition of concepts, clarification of the terms used, logical consequence, etc.

In conclusion, we note that the solution of cognitive problems also includes the justification of certain general and particular, special methods on the basis of which they were solved. The acquired knowledge should have the following features: relate to the studied characteristics or aspects of the object of study, have empirical verifiability, consistency, be expressed in concepts that have a logically unambiguous character. Their truth is checked on the basis of practical activity.

We also note that everyday knowledge is guided by a spontaneous-empirical worldview and its principles are not substantiated by the cognizing subject. This circumstance makes it possible to impose on the listener ideological attitudes that do not reflect the real process of development of social phenomena, that is, to manipulate their thinking. The sovereignty of the researcher's thinking is manifested only with logically controlled thinking, which is achieved by mastering philosophy and logic. nine0003

[1] See: Ruzavin GI Methodology of scientific research. M., 1999.

[2] See: Philosophical Encyclopedia. M., 1970. V. 5. S. 298.

[3] K. Marx, F. Engels Soch. 2nd ed.

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