Problem solving examples psychology

7.3 Problem-Solving – Introductory Psychology

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe problem solving strategies
Define algorithm and heuristic
Explain some common roadblocks to effective problem solving

People face problems every day—usually, multiple problems throughout the day. Sometimes these problems are straightforward: To double a recipe for pizza dough, for example, all that is required is that each ingredient in the recipe be doubled. Sometimes, however, the problems we encounter are more complex. For example, say you have a work deadline, and you must mail a printed copy of a report to your supervisor by the end of the business day. The report is time-sensitive and must be sent overnight. You finished the report last night, but your printer will not work today. What should you do? First, you need to identify the problem and then apply a strategy for solving the problem.

The study of human and animal problem solving processes has provided much insight toward the understanding of our conscious experience and led to advancements in computer science and artificial intelligence. Essentially much of cognitive science today represents studies of how we consciously and unconsciously make decisions and solve problems. For instance, when encountered with a large amount of information, how do we go about making decisions about the most efficient way of sorting and analyzing all the information in order to find what you are looking for as in visual search paradigms in cognitive psychology. Or in a situation where a piece of machinery is not working properly, how do we go about organizing how to address the issue and understand what the cause of the problem might be. How do we sort the procedures that will be needed and focus attention on what is important in order to solve problems efficiently. Within this section we will discuss some of these issues and examine processes related to human, animal and computer problem solving.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

When people are presented with a problem—whether it is a complex mathematical problem or a broken printer, how do you solve it? Before finding a solution to the problem, the problem must first be clearly identified. After that, one of many problem solving strategies can be applied, hopefully resulting in a solution.

Problems themselves can be classified into two different categories known as ill-defined and well-defined problems (Schacter, 2009). Ill-defined problems represent issues that do not have clear goals, solution paths, or expected solutions whereas well-defined problems have specific goals, clearly defined solutions, and clear expected solutions. Problem solving often incorporates pragmatics (logical reasoning) and semantics (interpretation of meanings behind the problem), and also in many cases require abstract thinking and creativity in order to find novel solutions. Within psychology, problem solving refers to a motivational drive for reading a definite “goal” from a present situation or condition that is either not moving toward that goal, is distant from it, or requires more complex logical analysis for finding a missing description of conditions or steps toward that goal. Processes relating to problem solving include problem finding also known as problem analysis, problem shaping where the organization of the problem occurs, generating alternative strategies, implementation of attempted solutions, and verification of the selected solution. Various methods of studying problem solving exist within the field of psychology including introspection, behavior analysis and behaviorism, simulation, computer modeling, and experimentation.

A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. Different strategies have different action plans associated with them (table below). For example, a well-known strategy is trial and error. The old adage, “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again” describes trial and error. In terms of your broken printer, you could try checking the ink levels, and if that doesn’t work, you could check to make sure the paper tray isn’t jammed. Or maybe the printer isn’t actually connected to your laptop. When using trial and error, you would continue to try different solutions until you solved your problem. Although trial and error is not typically one of the most time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly used one.

**Problem-Solving Strategies**
Method	Description	Example
Trial and error	Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved	Restarting phone, turning off WiFi, turning off bluetooth in order to determine why your phone is malfunctioning
Algorithm	Step-by-step problem-solving formula	Instruction manual for installing new software on your computer
Heuristic	General problem-solving framework	Working backwards; breaking a task into steps

Another type of strategy is an algorithm. An algorithm is a problem-solving formula that provides you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome (Kahneman, 2011). You can think of an algorithm as a recipe with highly detailed instructions that produce the same result every time they are performed. Algorithms are used frequently in our everyday lives, especially in computer science. When you run a search on the Internet, search engines like Google use algorithms to decide which entries will appear first in your list of results. Facebook also uses algorithms to decide which posts to display on your newsfeed. Can you identify other situations in which algorithms are used?

A heuristic is another type of problem solving strategy. While an algorithm must be followed exactly to produce a correct result, a heuristic is a general problem-solving framework (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems. A “rule of thumb” is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and energy when making a decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it is not always the best method for making a rational decision. Different types of heuristics are used in different types of situations, but the impulse to use a heuristic occurs when one of five conditions is met (Pratkanis, 1989):

When one is faced with too much information
When the time to make a decision is limited
When the decision to be made is unimportant
When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision
When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment

Working backwards is a useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result. Consider this example: You live in Washington, D.C. and have been invited to a wedding at 4 PM on Saturday in Philadelphia. Knowing that Interstate 95 tends to back up any day of the week, you need to plan your route and time your departure accordingly. If you want to be at the wedding service by 3:30 PM, and it takes 2.5 hours to get to Philadelphia without traffic, what time should you leave your house? You use the working backwards heuristic to plan the events of your day on a regular basis, probably without even thinking about it.

Another useful heuristic is the practice of accomplishing a large goal or task by breaking it into a series of smaller steps. Students often use this common method to complete a large research project or long essay for school. For example, students typically brainstorm, develop a thesis or main topic, research the chosen topic, organize their information into an outline, write a rough draft, revise and edit the rough draft, develop a final draft, organize the references list, and proofread their work before turning in the project. The large task becomes less overwhelming when it is broken down into a series of small steps.

Further problem solving strategies have been identified (listed below) that incorporate flexible and creative thinking in order to reach solutions efficiently.

Additional Problem Solving Strategies:

Abstraction – refers to solving the problem within a model of the situation before applying it to reality.
Analogy – is using a solution that solves a similar problem.
Brainstorming – refers to collecting an analyzing a large amount of solutions, especially within a group of people, to combine the solutions and developing them until an optimal solution is reached.
Divide and conquer – breaking down large complex problems into smaller more manageable problems.
Hypothesis testing – method used in experimentation where an assumption about what would happen in response to manipulating an independent variable is made, and analysis of the affects of the manipulation are made and compared to the original hypothesis.
Lateral thinking – approaching problems indirectly and creatively by viewing the problem in a new and unusual light.
Means-ends analysis – choosing and analyzing an action at a series of smaller steps to move closer to the goal.
Method of focal objects – putting seemingly non-matching characteristics of different procedures together to make something new that will get you closer to the goal.
Morphological analysis – analyzing the outputs of and interactions of many pieces that together make up a whole system.
Proof – trying to prove that a problem cannot be solved. Where the proof fails becomes the starting point or solving the problem.
Reduction – adapting the problem to be as similar problems where a solution exists.
Research – using existing knowledge or solutions to similar problems to solve the problem.
Root cause analysis – trying to identify the cause of the problem.

The strategies listed above outline a short summary of methods we use in working toward solutions and also demonstrate how the mind works when being faced with barriers preventing goals to be reached.

One example of means-end analysis can be found by using the Tower of Hanoi paradigm. This paradigm can be modeled as a word problems as demonstrated by the Missionary-Cannibal Problem:

Missionary-Cannibal Problem

Three missionaries and three cannibals are on one side of a river and need to cross to the other side. The only means of crossing is a boat, and the boat can only hold two people at a time. Your goal is to devise a set of moves that will transport all six of the people across the river, being in mind the following constraint: The number of cannibals can never exceed the number of missionaries in any location. Remember that someone will have to also row that boat back across each time.

Hint: At one point in your solution, you will have to send more people back to the original side than you just sent to the destination.

The actual Tower of Hanoi problem consists of three rods sitting vertically on a base with a number of disks of different sizes that can slide onto any rod. The puzzle starts with the disks in a neat stack in ascending order of size on one rod, the smallest at the top making a conical shape. The objective of the puzzle is to move the entire stack to another rod obeying the following rules:

1. Only one disk can be moved at a time.
2. Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the stacks and placing it on top of another stack or on an empty rod.
3. No disc may be placed on top of a smaller disk.

Figure 7.02. Steps for solving the Tower of Hanoi in the minimum number of moves when there are 3 disks.

With 3 disks, the puzzle can be solved in 7 moves. The minimal moves required to solve a Tower of Hanoi puzzle is 2ⁿ – 1, where n is the number of disks. For example, if there were 14 disks in the tower, the minimum amount of moves that could be made to solve the puzzle would be 2¹⁴ – 1 = 16,383 moves.

There are various ways of approaching the Tower of Hanoi or its related problems in addition to the approaches listed above including an iterative solution, recursive solution, non-recursive solution, a binary and gray code solutions, and graphical representations. An iterative solution entails moving the smallest pieces over one, then moving the next over one and if there is no tower position in the chosen direction you are moving to, move the pieces to the opposite end, but then continue to move in the same direction. By doing this you will complete the puzzle in the minimum amount of moves when there are 3 disks.Recursive solutions represents recognizing that the puzzle can be broken down into a series of sub problems to each of which the same general solving procedures apply, and then the total solution can be found by putting together the sub solutions. Non-recursive solutions entail recognizing that the procedures required to solve the problem have many regularities such as when counting the moves starting at 1, position of the disk in the series to be moved during move m represents the number of times m can be divided by 2 which indicates that every odd move involves the smallest disk.

This allows for the following algorithm:1.) Move the smallest disk to the peg that it has not recently come from.2.) Move another disk legally (there will only be one possibility).A binary and gray solutions describe disk move numbers in binary notation (base-2) where there is only one binary digit (a bit) for each disk and the most significant (leftmost bit) represents the largest disk. A bit with a different value to the previous one means that the corresponding disk is one position to the left or right of the previous one.Graphical representations as their name describes represent visual presentations of conditions that can be modeled in order to view the most efficient and effective solutions. A common graph for the Tower of Hanoi is represented by a unidirectional, pyramid shaped graph, where different nodes (pieces within each level of the graph) represent distributions of disks and the edges represent moves.

Figure 7.03. Graphical representation of nodes (circles) and moves (lines) of Tower of Hanoi.

The Tower of Hanoi is a frequently used psychological technique to study problem solving and procedure analysis. A variation of the Tower of Hanoi known as the Tower of London has been developed which has been an important tool in the neuropsychological diagnosis of executive function disorders and their treatment.

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY AND PROBLEM SOLVING

As you may recall from the sensation and perception chapter, Gestalt psychology describes whole patterns, forms and configurations of perception and cognition such as closure, good continuation, and figure-ground. In addition to patterns of perception, Wolfgang Kohler, a German Gestalt psychologist traveled to the Spanish island of Tenerife in order to study animals behavior and problem solving in the anthropoid ape.

As an interesting side note to Kohler’s studies of chimp problem solving, Dr. Ronald Ley, professor of psychology at State University of New York provides evidence in his book A Whisper of Espionage (1990) suggesting that while collecting data for what would later be his book The Mentality of Apes (1925) on Tenerife in the Canary Islands between 1914 and 1920, Kohler was additionally an active spy for the German government alerting Germany to ships that were sailing around the Canary Islands. Ley suggests his investigations in England, Germany and elsewhere in Europe confirm that Kohler had served in the German military by building, maintaining and operating a concealed radio that contributed to Germany’s war effort acting as a strategic outpost in the Canary Islands that could monitor naval military activity approaching the north African coast.

While trapped on the island over the course of World War 1, Kohler applied Gestalt principles to animal perception in order to understand how they solve problems. He recognized that the apes on the islands also perceive relations between stimuli and the environment in Gestalt patterns and understand these patterns as wholes as opposed to pieces that make up a whole. Kohler based his theories of animal intelligence on the ability to understand relations between stimuli, and spent much of his time while trapped on the island investigation what he described as insight, the sudden perception of useful or proper relations. In order to study insight in animals, Kohler would present problems to chimpanzee’s by hanging some banana’s or some kind of food so it was suspended higher than the apes could reach. Within the room, Kohler would arrange a variety of boxes, sticks or other tools the chimpanzees could use by combining in patterns or organizing in a way that would allow them to obtain the food (Kohler & Winter, 1925).

While viewing the chimpanzee’s, Kohler noticed one chimp that was more efficient at solving problems than some of the others. The chimp, named Sultan, was able to use long poles to reach through bars and organize objects in specific patterns to obtain food or other desirables that were originally out of reach. In order to study insight within these chimps, Kohler would remove objects from the room to systematically make the food more difficult to obtain. As the story goes, after removing many of the objects Sultan was used to using to obtain the food, he sat down ad sulked for a while, and then suddenly got up going over to two poles lying on the ground. Without hesitation Sultan put one pole inside the end of the other creating a longer pole that he could use to obtain the food demonstrating an ideal example of what Kohler described as insight. In another situation, Sultan discovered how to stand on a box to reach a banana that was suspended from the rafters illustrating Sultan’s perception of relations and the importance of insight in problem solving.

Grande (another chimp in the group studied by Kohler) builds a three-box structure to reach the bananas, while Sultan watches from the ground. Insight, sometimes referred to as an “Ah-ha” experience, was the term Kohler used for the sudden perception of useful relations among objects during problem solving (Kohler, 1927; Radvansky & Ashcraft, 2013).

Solving Puzzles

Problem-solving abilities can improve with practice. Many people challenge themselves every day with puzzles and other mental exercises to sharpen their problem-solving skills. Sudoku puzzles appear daily in most newspapers. Typically, a sudoku puzzle is a 9×9 grid. The simple sudoku below (see figure) is a 4×4 grid. To solve the puzzle, fill in the empty boxes with a single digit: 1, 2, 3, or 4. Here are the rules: The numbers must total 10 in each bolded box, each row, and each column; however, each digit can only appear once in a bolded box, row, and column. Time yourself as you solve this puzzle and compare your time with a classmate.

How long did it take you to solve this sudoku puzzle? (You can see the answer at the end of this section.)

Here is another popular type of puzzle (figure below) that challenges your spatial reasoning skills. Connect all nine dots with four connecting straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper:

Did you figure it out? (The answer is at the end of this section.) Once you understand how to crack this puzzle, you won’t forget.

Take a look at the “Puzzling Scales” logic puzzle below (figure below). Sam Loyd, a well-known puzzle master, created and refined countless puzzles throughout his lifetime (Cyclopedia of Puzzles, n.d.).

What steps did you take to solve this puzzle? You can read the solution at the end of this section.

PITFALLS TO PROBLEM SOLVING

Not all problems are successfully solved, however. What challenges stop us from successfully solving a problem? Albert Einstein once said, “Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting a different result.” Imagine a person in a room that has four doorways. One doorway that has always been open in the past is now locked. The person, accustomed to exiting the room by that particular doorway, keeps trying to get out through the same doorway even though the other three doorways are open. The person is stuck—but she just needs to go to another doorway, instead of trying to get out through the locked doorway. A mental set is where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now.

Functional fixedness is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for. During the Apollo 13 mission to the moon, NASA engineers at Mission Control had to overcome functional fixedness to save the lives of the astronauts aboard the spacecraft. An explosion in a module of the spacecraft damaged multiple systems. The astronauts were in danger of being poisoned by rising levels of carbon dioxide because of problems with the carbon dioxide filters. The engineers found a way for the astronauts to use spare plastic bags, tape, and air hoses to create a makeshift air filter, which saved the lives of the astronauts.

Researchers have investigated whether functional fixedness is affected by culture. In one experiment, individuals from the Shuar group in Ecuador were asked to use an object for a purpose other than that for which the object was originally intended. For example, the participants were told a story about a bear and a rabbit that were separated by a river and asked to select among various objects, including a spoon, a cup, erasers, and so on, to help the animals. The spoon was the only object long enough to span the imaginary river, but if the spoon was presented in a way that reflected its normal usage, it took participants longer to choose the spoon to solve the problem. (German & Barrett, 2005). The researchers wanted to know if exposure to highly specialized tools, as occurs with individuals in industrialized nations, affects their ability to transcend functional fixedness. It was determined that functional fixedness is experienced in both industrialized and nonindustrialized cultures (German & Barrett, 2005).

In order to make good decisions, we use our knowledge and our reasoning. Often, this knowledge and reasoning is sound and solid. Sometimes, however, we are swayed by biases or by others manipulating a situation. For example, let’s say you and three friends wanted to rent a house and had a combined target budget of $1,600. The realtor shows you only very run-down houses for $1,600 and then shows you a very nice house for $2,000. Might you ask each person to pay more in rent to get the $2,000 home? Why would the realtor show you the run-down houses and the nice house? The realtor may be challenging your anchoring bias. An anchoring bias occurs when you focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem. In this case, you’re so focused on the amount of money you are willing to spend that you may not recognize what kinds of houses are available at that price point.

The confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs. For example, if you think that your professor is not very nice, you notice all of the instances of rude behavior exhibited by the professor while ignoring the countless pleasant interactions he is involved in on a daily basis. Hindsight bias leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out the way they did. Representative bias describes a faulty way of thinking, in which you unintentionally stereotype someone or something; for example, you may assume that your professors spend their free time reading books and engaging in intellectual conversation, because the idea of them spending their time playing volleyball or visiting an amusement park does not fit in with your stereotypes of professors.

Finally, the availability heuristic is a heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision. Biases tend to “preserve that which is already established—to maintain our preexisting knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and hypotheses” (Aronson, 1995; Kahneman, 2011). These biases are summarized in the table below.

**Summary of Decision Biases**
Bias	Description
Anchoring	Tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when making decisions or problem-solving
Confirmation	Focuses on information that confirms existing beliefs
Hindsight	Belief that the event just experienced was predictable
Representative	Unintentional stereotyping of someone or something
Availability	Decision is based upon either an available precedent or an example that may be faulty

Were you able to determine how many marbles are needed to balance the scales in the figure below? You need nine. Were you able to solve the problems in the figures above? Here are the answers.

SUMMARY

Many different strategies exist for solving problems. Typical strategies include trial and error, applying algorithms, and using heuristics. To solve a large, complicated problem, it often helps to break the problem into smaller steps that can be accomplished individually, leading to an overall solution. Roadblocks to problem solving include a mental set, functional fixedness, and various biases that can cloud decision making skills.

References:

Openstax Psychology text by Kathryn Dumper, William Jenkins, Arlene Lacombe, Marilyn Lovett and Marion Perlmutter licensed under CC BY v4.0. https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

Exercises

Review Questions:

1. A specific formula for solving a problem is called ________.

a. an algorithm

b. a heuristic

c. a mental set

d. trial and error

2. Solving the Tower of Hanoi problem tends to utilize a ________ strategy of problem solving.

a. divide and conquer

b. means-end analysis

c. analogy

d. experiment

3. A mental shortcut in the form of a general problem-solving framework is called ________.

a. an algorithm

b. a heuristic

c. a mental set

d. trial and error

4. Which type of bias involves becoming fixated on a single trait of a problem?

a. anchoring bias

b. confirmation bias

c. representative bias

d. availability bias

5. Which type of bias involves relying on a false stereotype to make a decision?

a. anchoring bias

b. confirmation bias

c. representative bias

d. availability bias

6. Wolfgang Kohler analyzed behavior of chimpanzees by applying Gestalt principles to describe ________.

a. social adjustment

b. student load payment options

c. emotional learning

d. insight learning

7. ________ is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for.

a. functional fixedness

b. confirmation bias

c. working memory

d. insight learning

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. What is functional fixedness and how can overcoming it help you solve problems?

2. How does an algorithm save you time and energy when solving a problem?

Personal Application Question:

1. Which type of bias do you recognize in your own decision making processes? How has this bias affected how you’ve made decisions in the past and how can you use your awareness of it to improve your decisions making skills in the future?

Glossary:

algorithm

anchoring bias

availability heuristic

confirmation bias

functional fixedness

heuristic

hindsight bias

mental set

problem-solving strategy

representative bias

trial and error

working backwards

Answers to Exercises

Review Questions:

1. A

2. B

3. B

4. A

5. C

6. D

7. A

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. What is functional fixedness and how can overcoming it help you solve problems?

2. How does an algorithm save you time and energy when solving a problem?

Glossary:

algorithm: problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions

anchoring bias: faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution

availability heuristic: faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you

confirmation bias: faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs

functional fixedness: inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended

heuristic: mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem

hindsight bias: belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t

mental set: continually using an old solution to a problem without results

problem-solving strategy: method for solving problems

representative bias: faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something without a valid basis for your judgment

trial and error: problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found

working backwards: heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result

Problem Solving – Psychology

Thinking and Intelligence

OpenStaxCollege

[latexpage]

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe problem solving strategies
Define algorithm and heuristic
Explain some common roadblocks to effective problem solving

When you are presented with a problem—whether it is a complex mathematical problem or a broken printer, how do you solve it? Before finding a solution to the problem, the problem must first be clearly identified. After that, one of many problem solving strategies can be applied, hopefully resulting in a solution.

A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. Different strategies have different action plans associated with them ([link]). For example, a well-known strategy is trial and error. The old adage, “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again” describes trial and error. In terms of your broken printer, you could try checking the ink levels, and if that doesn’t work, you could check to make sure the paper tray isn’t jammed. Or maybe the printer isn’t actually connected to your laptop. When using trial and error, you would continue to try different solutions until you solved your problem. Although trial and error is not typically one of the most time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly used one.

Problem-Solving Strategies
Method	Description	Example
Trial and error	Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved	Restarting phone, turning off WiFi, turning off bluetooth in order to determine why your phone is malfunctioning
Algorithm	Step-by-step problem-solving formula	Instruction manual for installing new software on your computer
Heuristic	General problem-solving framework	Working backwards; breaking a task into steps

When one is faced with too much information
When the time to make a decision is limited
When the decision to be made is unimportant
When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision
When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment

Solving Puzzles

Problem-solving abilities can improve with practice. Many people challenge themselves every day with puzzles and other mental exercises to sharpen their problem-solving skills. Sudoku puzzles appear daily in most newspapers. Typically, a sudoku puzzle is a 9×9 grid. The simple sudoku below ([link]) is a 4×4 grid. To solve the puzzle, fill in the empty boxes with a single digit: 1, 2, 3, or 4. Here are the rules: The numbers must total 10 in each bolded box, each row, and each column; however, each digit can only appear once in a bolded box, row, and column. Time yourself as you solve this puzzle and compare your time with a classmate.

How long did it take you to solve this sudoku puzzle? (You can see the answer at the end of this section.)

Here is another popular type of puzzle ([link]) that challenges your spatial reasoning skills. Connect all nine dots with four connecting straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper:

Did you figure it out? (The answer is at the end of this section.) Once you understand how to crack this puzzle, you won’t forget.

Take a look at the “Puzzling Scales” logic puzzle below ([link]). Sam Loyd, a well-known puzzle master, created and refined countless puzzles throughout his lifetime (Cyclopedia of Puzzles, n.d.).

What steps did you take to solve this puzzle? You can read the solution at the end of this section.

Summary of Decision Biases
Bias	Description
Anchoring	Tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when making decisions or problem-solving
Confirmation	Focuses on information that confirms existing beliefs
Hindsight	Belief that the event just experienced was predictable
Representative	Unintentional stereotyping of someone or something
Availability	Decision is based upon either an available precedent or an example that may be faulty

Were you able to determine how many marbles are needed to balance the scales in [link]? You need nine. Were you able to solve the problems in [link] and [link]? Here are the answers ([link]).

A specific formula for solving a problem is called ________.

an algorithm
a heuristic
a mental set
trial and error

A mental shortcut in the form of a general problem-solving framework is called ________.

an algorithm
a heuristic
a mental set
trial and error

Which type of bias involves becoming fixated on a single trait of a problem?

anchoring bias
confirmation bias
representative bias
availability bias

Which type of bias involves relying on a false stereotype to make a decision?

anchoring bias
confirmation bias
representative bias
availability bias

What is functional fixedness and how can overcoming it help you solve problems?

Functional fixedness occurs when you cannot see a use for an object other than the use for which it was intended. For example, if you need something to hold up a tarp in the rain, but only have a pitchfork, you must overcome your expectation that a pitchfork can only be used for garden chores before you realize that you could stick it in the ground and drape the tarp on top of it to hold it up.

How does an algorithm save you time and energy when solving a problem?

An algorithm is a proven formula for achieving a desired outcome. It saves time because if you follow it exactly, you will solve the problem without having to figure out how to solve the problem. It is a bit like not reinventing the wheel.

Which type of bias do you recognize in your own decision making processes? How has this bias affected how you’ve made decisions in the past and how can you use your awareness of it to improve your decisions making skills in the future?

algorithm: problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions

anchoring bias: faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution

availability heuristic: faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you

confirmation bias: faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs

functional fixedness: inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended

heuristic: mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem

hindsight bias: belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t

mental set: continually using an old solution to a problem without results

problem-solving strategy: method for solving problems

representative bias: faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something without a valid basis for your judgment

trial and error: problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found

working backwards: heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result

Ways to solve complex problems at work (and not only)

Solving complex problems can be difficult, but does not have to be painful. All it takes is the right mindset and the right process. Fortunately, there are many techniques available to help resolve any problems you may encounter at work.

When you face a difficult task, where do you start? And what problem-solving techniques can you use right now?

In today's post, you'll find some tips and tricky problem solving techniques that will allow you to solve any problem with the confidence of a pro.

How many stages can the problem solving process be divided into?

At its core, problem solving is a four-step process. You may even remember these steps from the basics of the scientific method.

Problem must first be identified. What is its reason? How did you know it even existed?
You then identify possible solutions to the problem. What ideas come to your mind?
Then you need evaluate the options for and choose the most successful of them. Which option is best? What is the easiest? Which one to give preference?
Finally, apply the selected option . Did he solve the problem? Is it worth trying another way?

When applying problem-solving methods, some variation on these four steps will always serve as your foundation.

Conclusion: before solving a problem, try to fully understand it.

Creative problem solving

Get creative! You probably expected this to be a list of non-standard brainstorming solutions. Not really.

Creative problem solving (CPS) is actually a formal process described by Sidney Parnes and Alex Faickney Osborn, who is considered the father of traditional brainstorming.

Their creative problem solving process emphasizes several points:

Separate idea generation and evaluation . When you're brainstorming, take the time to capture all the ideas. Generate as many ideas as possible. Don't rate or prioritize until you've finished brainstorming.
Rating ruins everything . Nothing is more detrimental to the flow of creative ideas than evaluating them. Wait until the end of the assault before you start judging.
Reframe problems into questions . It will be easier to encourage the group to come up with creative solutions if the problem is presented in the form of a question with a non-standard answer.
"Yes and" will help develop the idea of  . Here is one of the basic rules of improvisation: any idea can be ruined by the word "but" (for example, "but I think it's better ..."). Avoid him at all costs. Instead, expand on what was said earlier by starting with “yes, and” so that the team continues to generate and develop ideas.

Takeaway: When brainstorming, start generating ideas by asking questions and building on existing ideas. All evaluations and judgments can be made later.

Psychological advice for problem solving

If we look at the history of problem solving techniques in psychology, we will find many interesting ideas that may well be useful.

Start from experience

In 1911, American psychologist Edward Thorndike observed cats trying to get out of the cage he placed them in. Based on this experiment, Thorndike developed his law of effect, which is as follows: if you succeed through trial and error, then when the same problem occurs, you are more likely to take the actions that led to your success the first time.

Conclusion: past experience can shed light on the problem you are facing now. Remember. Explore.

Obstacles to reproductive thinking

Thorndike's ideas were taken up and developed by supporters of Gestalt psychology, who claimed that problems could be solved with the help of reproductive thinking . It has nothing to do with sex - its meaning is that the reproduction of previous experience can help solve the current problem.

Gestalt psychology is interesting because of the way its adherents view obstacles to problem solving. Here are two of them:

1. Are you obsessed? This means that you are stuck on a solution that has worked well in the past but is not relevant to the current problem. Are you so fixated on a technique or idea that you use it even if it doesn't work? As Princess Elsa sang, "Let go and forget!"

2. Do you think of alternatives? There is a cognitive distortion called functional fixity. It can kill all your creativity by making you see only the traditional features of the object.

For example, if you need to cut a piece of paper, and you only have a ruler, functional fixity will not allow you to distract yourself from the idea that a ruler can only measure objects. (Though you can iron a folded sheet with a ruler, so it will be easier to tear it in half.)

Conclusion: do not look for standard solutions! And by standard, we mean the past experience that you cling to, or any preconceived ideas about how a given tool should be used.

Start using these techniques now

We hope you find these techniques useful and that your imagination will begin to flow with solutions to various problems.

If this happens, then you have four statements that you can use when faced with the next problem:

Don't start by trying to solve the problem. First try to understand its cause.
Ask questions - they will help find solutions to the problem.
Remember how previous problems were solved - this may help solve the current one.
Before trying to solve a problem, get rid of preconceived notions and past experiences.

Creative problem solving techniques (Example 3)

Hello dear readers!

With this publication, I continue to introduce you to various problem solving techniques. I have already presented some of them in article 1 and in article 2.

Today I'm going to talk about a technique called 20 Questions to Yourself.

Paradoxically, if we formulate the essence of this technique, then it would sound like this: "how to find a solution to a problem without solving the problem itself."

Now I will explain why.

The fact is that this technique consists of two dozen leading questions, most of which in itself do not lead to a solution to the problem, since it is intended to work out not the problem as such, but its context, in which, as a rule, its possibilities are hidden. solutions.

Therefore, this problem solving technique can be called the "around and around" technique or the technique of contextual (leading) questions.

I believe that the question, not the answer, is the real key to solving the problem. The art of asking questions correctly is the basis for overcoming most life and professional difficulties.

A correctly posed question reveals the invisible layers of the problem, reveals its subtext, transforms the attitude towards it, thereby facilitating the search for its solution.

That is why the expression "sort it out" best characterizes the main function of this technique. It allows you to look at the problem differently, to see new opportunities and resources that were previously hidden and not taken seriously.

As my practice of coaching and psychological counseling shows, the development of this technique by clients allows them to effectively solve both everyday problems and problems in their personal lives, as well as various professional difficulties.

How to apply this technique? Everything is very simple:

as clearly as possible formulate the problem that is the most relevant and priority for you at this time;

take a sheet of paper and a pencil, focus and answer the following 20 questions;

after receiving the answers, proceed to the formulation of possible solutions to the selected problem.

Before starting the whole procedure, set yourself a mindset: try not to solve the selected problem. Just strive to give the most accurate and objective answers to questions. Let the main solution ripen gradually, in the depths of the subconscious, and you just go “around and around the problem”, look closely, look for its new facets, and, so to speak, get to know it better. So…

How to find a solution to a problem or

“20 Questions to Yourself”

would it be a summary?
Why haven't I solved this problem yet? What has prevented me from doing so until now? What now, at this time, prevents me from solving this problem?
Why is it vital for me to solve this problem?
Why is this problem a problem and not just an ordinary life problem? And is it really so?
If I solve this problem, what will change in my life? And vice versa - what can happen in my life such that I do not have to solve this problem?
If I imagine a situation that I can communicate with myself through time, for example, through electronic almost, and if I had this problem 10 years ago, what would I advise myself from my present future? What solutions would you suggest to yourself living in the past?
If this problem does not work, what can I do? And do I have the resources to create a new solution?
If I had only five minutes to solve this problem, what would I do? Why? What's stopping me from making that decision now?
Why can I say that this problem is my teacher? What does she teach me and what can I learn from her?
If I don't address this problem, or delay solving it, what will or could happen?
What new meaning does this problem and its future solution bring to my life?
How will solving this problem affect my relationships with others? Will it benefit them or harm them?
Who can help me find a solution to the problem?
To whom can I delegate the solution of this problem or part of it?
What resources (financial, psychological, material, etc. ) do I have to work out a solution?
Do I have experience with the same or similar problems? How can I use it?
Are there people around me who have experience in solving the same problems? Can I contact them?
Can this problem be broken down into parts, into mini-problems? And can I already solve at least one of them?
How is this problem related to my other difficulties in life?
Is it possible, by solving this problem, to contribute to the solution of others? Conversely, is it possible to solve other problems by solving this one?

As a rule, the totality of the answers to these 20 questions makes it possible to very well clarify the situation around the problem being solved and find the necessary "hooks" to find its solution.

The responses received act as a kind of catalyst, accelerating and optimizing the search for this solution.

I repeat that with the help of this technique you can effectively solve everyday problems and problems in your personal life.

Learn more

Problem solving examples psychology

7.3 Problem-Solving – Introductory Psychology

Learning Objectives

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

Solving Puzzles

PITFALLS TO PROBLEM SOLVING

SUMMARY

Exercises

Answers to Exercises

Problem Solving – Psychology

Learning Objectives

Ways to solve complex problems at work (and not only)

How many stages can the problem solving process be divided into?

Creative problem solving

Psychological advice for problem solving

Start from experience

Obstacles to reproductive thinking

Other tools for problem solving

Start using these techniques now

Creative problem solving techniques (Example 3)