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Age-related physiological changes and their clinical significance

. 1981 Dec;135(6):434-40.

G R Boss, J E Seegmiller

  • PMID: 7336713
  • PMCID: PMC1273316

Free PMC article

G R Boss et al. West J Med. 1981 Dec.

Free PMC article

. 1981 Dec;135(6):434-40.

Authors

G R Boss, J E Seegmiller

  • PMID: 7336713
  • PMCID: PMC1273316

Abstract

Physiological changes occur with aging in all organ systems. The cardiac output decreases, blood pressure increases and arteriosclerosis develops. The lungs show impaired gas exchange, a decrease in vital capacity and slower expiratory flow rates. The creatinine clearance decreases with age although the serum creatinine level remains relatively constant due to a proportionate age-related decrease in creatinine production. Functional changes, largely related to altered motility patterns, occur in the gastrointestinal system with senescence, and atrophic gastritis and altered hepatic drug metabolism are common in the elderly. Progressive elevation of blood glucose occurs with age on a multifactorial basis and osteoporosis is frequently seen due to a linear decline in bone mass after the fourth decade. The epidermis of the skin atrophies with age and due to changes in collagen and elastin the skin loses its tone and elasticity. Lean body mass declines with age and this is primarily due to loss and atrophy of muscle cells. Degenerative changes occur in many joints and this, combined with the loss of muscle mass, inhibits elderly patients' locomotion. These changes with age have important practical implications for the clinical management of elderly patients: metabolism is altered, changes in response to commonly used drugs make different drug dosages necessary and there is need for rational preventive programs of diet and exercise in an effort to delay or reverse some of these changes.

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MeSH terms

Physiological Changes Associated with Aging and Immobility

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ReferencesCopyrightRelated Articles

Aging, an inevitable and extremely complex, multifactorial process, is characterised by the progressive degeneration of organ systems and tissues. It is largely determined by genetics, and influenced by a wide range of environmental factors, such as diet, exercise, exposure to microorganisms, pollutants, and ionising radiation. This explains why two people of the same age may differ markedly in terms of both physical appearance and physiological state. Gender also plays a part and, in most developed countries, women typically outlive men by 7–10 years [1]. Recent research has also demonstrated that distant experiences such as childhood personality and education, as well as behavioural factors, also contribute to longevity [2].

It is generally accepted that the aging process falls physiologically into three groups of changes that occur with advancing age [3]. The first group encompass changes in cellular homeostatic mechanisms, for example, body temperature, blood, and extracellular fluid volumes; the second group are related to a decrease in organ mass; the third and possibly the most important group of changes, in terms of their impact, involve a decline in and loss of the functional reserve of the body’s systems. Loss of these functional reserves may impair an individual’s ability to cope with external challenges such as surgery or trauma. Maintaining physiological function (health) in an aging population is of prime importance not only to the well-being of the aging individual, but also from a social perspective, helping to reduce the burden on medical services and systems [4].

It has also been long established that the physiological changes associated with normal aging are mirrored during periods of immobility, such as prolonged hospital bed rest, or after a fractured limb or a fall.

It was with the above in mind and with the hope of collating research and knowledge examining the effects of normal aging and immobility that we developed the call for this special issue.

Three of the seven papers in the Issue discuss physiological changes in muscle tissue:(i)age-related loss of muscle strength is considered by G. Goldspink, who pays special consideration to declining levels of Mechano Growth Factor (MGF) with age and the positive effects seen on muscle cells when this factor is externally administered;(ii)J. Alwood et al. describe how their study in mice shows changes to the skeletal musculature following low dose ionising gamma radiation changes which are normally seen in elderly patients prior to the onset of age-related osteoporosis;(iii)a quantitative review of age-related changes in strength/power and balance and the consequence of falls risk assessment is presented by U. Granacher et al.Two papers in this special issue consider age-related cardiac function:(i)G. A. Maranhao Neto et al. discuss how low levels of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) can be associated with health problems in elderly patients; the authors present a unique model of assessing levels of CRF, negating the use of aerobic exercise which often presents severe limitations as a test method;(ii)the study by S. Moodithaya and S. T. Avadhany highlights the findings that there are gender differences in age-related changes in cardiac autonomic control, suggesting that female sex hormones may play a part in cardiac autonomic modulation.

Our penultimate paper by C. N. Ross et al. explores the potential for using translational research (using a population of nonhuman primates) to determine if certain body measurements and phenotypes are associated with age or increased mortality.

Finally, R. Semprini et al. suggest a look at impaired cognition and apathy as markers for unsuccessful aging and frailty.

The papers we present here certainly, in our minds, contribute to the further understanding of the physiological changes associated with aging and highlight the continued need to develop and expand our knowledge in this important field of research.

Yamni Nigam
John Knight
Sharmila Bhattacharya
Antony Bayer

References

  1. J. Knight and Y. Nigam, “The anatomy and physiology of ageing. Part 1—the cardiovascular system,” Nursing Times, vol. 104, no. 31, pp. 26–27, 2008.

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  2. P. Martin, L. W. Poon, and B. Hagberg, “Behavioral factors of longevity,” Journal of Aging Research, vol. 2011, Article ID 197590, 2 pages, 2011.

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    Publisher Site | Google Scholar

  3. C. Dodds, “Physiology of ageing,” Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine, vol. 7, no. 12, pp. 456–458, 2006.

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    Publisher Site | Google Scholar

  4. G. C. Sieck, “Physiology of aging,” Journal of Applied Physiology, vol. 95, no. 4, pp. 1333–1334, 2003.

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Copyright

Copyright © 2012 Yamni Nigam et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Psychology of teenagers | Psychological assistance – a network of clinics NEARMEDIC

The psychological state of a person in different periods of ontogenesis may have its own characteristics. External and internal factors affect the emotional state and cognitive abilities. Particularly important are periods of hormonal changes that affect personality development and psychological reactions. It is during these periods that the manifestation of various diseases often occurs. Adolescence may be an indication to work with a psychologist in the event of the appearance of certain symptoms, such as: low self-esteem or suicidal thoughts.

General information

Age-related psychological characteristics can be described as a gradual development of personality. The totality of external influences and internal restructuring determines the emotional state of a person in certain periods of life. One of the most important factors of influence is the endocrine regulation of the body. Hormones affect the brain by changing the concentration of neurotransmitters. These changes may have a physiological function (puberty) or be signs of pathology.

Adolescence is a difficult period when the child begins to imitate the behavior of adults and be critical of his parents. Physical changes and hormonal changes cause emotional instability, irritability, and a decrease in self-esteem. It is during this period that the first symptoms of mental disorders that can negatively affect the entire subsequent life of a person may appear.

Facts about puberty

Puberty is called the period of physiological changes, characterized by the preparation of the body to perform the reproductive function. In a broader sense, puberty can be called growing up, since it is during this period that the foundation of a person's personality is laid. The processes of physiological and psychological changes occur in parallel due to the influence of hormones and the adolescent's reaction to his own condition. On average, puberty can begin at 11-13 and end at 18-19.years. In girls, puberty usually starts earlier.

The main regulators of physiological changes are the sex glands - the ovaries in women and the testes in men. These organs secrete hormones into the blood that control the development of the musculoskeletal system, genital organs, and other anatomical structures. The effect of hormones on the central nervous system is due to a change in the balance of neurotransmitters. In men, puberty is the only period of psychological instability in life due to endocrine changes, while in women, similar phenomena occur during pregnancy.

Psychological aspects of puberty may depend on the following factors

  1. Heredity. Traits transmitted from parents affect the development of the nervous system.
  2. Nutrition. During puberty, the body requires a large amount of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals for the development of organs, including the brain.
  3. Social influence, including relationships with peers and parents.

During puberty, drastic changes in physique occur. Boys and girls pay attention to the disproportionate development of the body, such as long limbs, stoop and large head. All these temporary features affect a person's self-esteem. At the same time, the hormonal background only enhances the influence of reflection on the psyche. For some adolescents, these factors lead to persistent personality traits such as anxiety and avoidance behavior. In this regard, it is important to start working with a psychologist as early as possible.

Personality psychology

Adolescents during puberty are characterized by certain personality traits. Accounting for these features is important for the prevention of mental disorders and proper education. It should be borne in mind that the severity of certain personality traits varies depending on gender, age and individual qualities of a person.

Basic personality traits

  1. Inadequate self-esteem. The desire for self-expression, ostentatious adulthood, recognition of one's own authority and intellectual development contribute to the formation of a teenager's view of his own position in society. People at this age are characterized by reduced or inadequately high self-esteem. At an older age, this problem usually disappears, however, the formation of complexes that constantly affect self-esteem is possible.
  2. Impulsive behavior. Pragmatism is not a popular way of looking at things among teenagers due to lack of personal experience and emotional instability.
  3. Lack of experience, "hot mind", lack of independence and the desire to learn new things are the factors that determine the gullibility and naivety of a teenager.
  4. Emotional lability is an unstable mental state that is characteristic of many adolescents. This personality trait is manifested by constant mood swings, irritability and aggressiveness. The mood of the child during the day can be replaced by periods of tearfulness and emotional excitement.
  5. Undeveloped emotional-volitional control. This feature can also be associated with emotional instability and suggestibility. The inhibitory processes associated with the functions of the cerebral cortex are still developing during puberty, so young people have difficulty controlling their own impulses. An adult can almost always stop in time due to the instinct of self-preservation or life experience, but such a psychological mechanism may simply not be available to children.

All of these features distinguish a teenager from an adult. The persistence of such personality traits in adults is called infantilism by psychologists.

Causes of diseases

Since the first signs of mental disorders often appear during puberty, it is necessary to consider the possible causes and prerequisites for such ailments. One of the main aspects is heredity, since genetic mutations transmitted from parents can affect the psycho-emotional development of a teenager. You should also take into account endogenous influences, including the peculiarities of the hormonal background. The main cause of most mental illnesses is an imbalance of neurotransmitters in the brain.

Possible risk factors:

  1. Psychological circumstances such as bullying, parental abuse, molestation. The tragic events suffered during puberty can leave a mark on a person's personality for the rest of his life.
  2. Influence of surrounding people. Because of the impressiveness and impulsiveness, girls and boys often develop unhealthy inclinations precisely at puberty. Often we are talking about criminal inclinations and bad habits.
  3. Unfavorable family conditions, such as: poverty, poor sanitation and parental conditions. Even if only one parent suffers from alcoholism, the risk of “passing on” such a bad habit is quite high.
  4. Peer crisis due to self-doubt and anxiety.
  5. The appearance of complexes associated with appearance, living conditions.
  6. Difficulties in mutual understanding between children and parents. Usually, the most difficult relationships between generations in a family arise precisely at the moment of growing up of children.

Seeing a psychologist may be appropriate if a teenager has several of these risk factors.

Diseases

Psychologists and doctors are aware of mental disorders that most often manifest themselves at the age of puberty.

Examples of disorders:

  1. Depression is a persistent decrease in mood. Patients are pessimistic, irritable and apathetic. The first symptoms of the disease often appear in childhood. The danger of depression lies in the possible transition of a melancholy mood into suicidal tendencies. Due to the characteristics of pubertal psychology, the symptoms of the disease are not always easy to detect in a teenager.
  2. Anxious personality disorder is a pathology manifested by constant anxiety, complexes and inexplicable fears. The person develops avoidance behavior. Anxiety negatively affects the quality of later life and personal development.
  3. Borderline personality disorder is the most common mental illness in adolescents. The first symptoms usually appear between the ages of 16 and 25. Pathology is more often diagnosed in girls. Borderline symptoms include reduced self-control, antisocial behavior, impulsivity, and emotional instability. In general, the signs of the disease resemble accentuated adolescent personality traits, so diagnosis can be difficult.
  4. Mental disorders of the schizophrenic spectrum - the most severe pathologies. Unlike the above conditions, these diseases significantly impair the quality of life and often make a person disabled. Illnesses can be manifested by hallucinations, delusional thoughts, eccentric behavior and a general thought disorder.

Thus, the transition period in the development of the psyche is dangerous for the formation of diseases, so it is important to monitor the state of the teenager.

Symptoms

Parents may notice suspicious behavioral traits in their child and consult a psychologist. Also, a teenager can independently complain about certain problems.

Early symptoms of disorders:

  • isolation in oneself, social phobia;
  • constant irritability, aggression;
  • taking alcohol, drugs;
  • insomnia or hypersomnia;
  • constant weakness and fatigue;
  • conflict behavior;
  • sexual promiscuity;
  • lack of a critical attitude towards oneself and one's actions;
  • constant fears, worries;
  • self harm, including minor cuts;
  • decreased physical activity.

Not all of the above symptoms can be associated with mental illness. Some symptoms may indicate an improper diet, hypovitaminosis, and the presence of a metabolic disease.

Diagnostics

For a professional examination, it is recommended to make an appointment with a psychologist or psychotherapist. The specialist will ask the patient and his parents about complaints, as well as examine the anamnestic information to identify risk factors for diseases. Initial consultation helps to detect suspicious behavioral traits. To clarify the level of anxiety and depression, a psychologist can use standardized tests.

Additional diagnostic methods:

  • neurological examination to exclude organic brain diseases affecting emotions and behavior;
  • therapeutic examination to exclude pathologies of internal organs.

The purpose of early psychological examination is to detect unfavorable personality tendencies that can subsequently become the cause of the manifestation of the disorder. Elimination of the disease at this stage of development can significantly improve the quality of human life. On the contrary, the treatment of already formed mental disorders can be difficult.

Psychological assistance

Depending on the results of the consultation, the specialist may suggest treatment for the identified disease or correction of certain psychological problems. It is important to understand that full psychotherapy requires a large number of sessions and a long course of treatment in general.

Possible correction methods:

  1. Family therapy. The psychologist tries to competently conduct a psychotherapy session with a teenager and his parents.
  2. Group therapy. In psychology and psychiatry, work in specialized groups is often practiced. This method helps fight social phobia and anxiety.
  3. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is the most popular method of psychotherapy aimed at teaching the patient independent methods of dealing with the symptoms of disorders.

The choice of therapy depends on many factors, including the severity of the psychological condition and the age of the patient.

Prevention

Prevention of mental disorders in adolescents is an important task. It is worth starting prevention with the appearance of the first adverse behavioral and personality traits in a child.

Some methods:

  • consultation with a psychotherapist at least once a year;
  • compliance with sleep and wakefulness;
  • solving problems of conflict behavior at school;
  • teaching the child positive traits, such as the ability to take responsibility for one's own actions.

For information about other prevention rules, it is recommended to make an appointment with a psychologist.

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Selye's three stages of stress: anxiety, resistance, exhaustion

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  • Stress

General information

Stress is one of the normal conditions of the body, as it is associated with an increase in adaptive mechanisms. Stress is an essential part of life. Stress reactions phylogenetically helped a person to cope with difficulties, therefore, in this aspect, stress reactions are useful. However, when stress has a vivid expression and a long manifestation, in this case it causes harm to human health.

Types of stress

According to the type of impact, stress is systemic and mental. Systemic stress reflects the body's response to injury, inflammation, infection, and so on. Mental stress first causes changes in the psycho-emotional sphere, and then manifests itself at the biological level.

Selye's observations

Hans Selye is considered the founder of the theory of biological stress. Hans Selye's model of the general adaptation syndrome provides a clear biological explanation for how the body reacts and adapts to stress.

In his research, Selye noticed that the body adapts to external stressors in terms of a biological model that tries to restore and maintain internal balance. In its attempt to maintain homeostasis, the body uses a hormonal response that directly combats the stressor. The body's struggle against stress is the main theme of the general adaptation syndrome.

Another observation that Selye found was that stress responses have their limits. The body's limited supply of energy to adapt to a stressful environment is depleted when the body is constantly exposed to a stressor.

Three phases of the stress response

General Adaptation Syndrome is a model that consists of three elements or phases that describe the body's response to stress:

called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus ensures the release of hormones called glucocorticoids.

Glucocorticoids trigger the release of adrenaline and cortisol. Adrenaline gives a person a boost of energy: the heart rate increases, blood pressure rises, blood sugar also rises. These physiological changes are regulated by a part of the human autonomic nervous system called the sympathetic branch.

The adrenal glands begin to actively produce an increased amount of cortisol and are in a state of hyperfunction. This condition can be confirmed by using a pattern of changes in the hormonal profile of saliva, which will be the following indicators: elevated cortisol levels / normal DHEA levels.

2. Resistance stage

During the resistance stage, the body attempts to counteract the physiological changes that occurred during the alarm reaction stage. The resistance stage is regulated by a part of the autonomic nervous system called the parasympathetic.

The parasympathetic nervous system tries to bring the body back to normal: the amount of cortisol produced decreases, heart rate and blood pressure begin to return to normal. The level of body resistance is much higher than usual. At this stage, a balanced expenditure of adaptation resources is carried out.

If the stressful situation ends, the body returns to its normal state during the resistance stage. However, if the stressor remains, the body remains on guard to fight its manifestations.

The adrenal glands adapt to this stage already using a mechanism called "pregnenolone hijack". Pregnenolone is a cholesterol metabolite and is the precursor chemical for the production of both cortisol and sex hormones, including testosterone. When the metabolism of pregnenolone changes, the level of testosterone produced in the body decreases. At this stage, the pattern of the hormonal profile in saliva will be represented by the following indicators: elevated cortisol/low DHEA.

3. Stage of exhaustion

In this stage, stress persists for a long period. The body begins to lose the ability to deal with the stressor and reduce its harmful effects, as all adaptive capacity is depleted. The exhaustion stage can lead to stress overload and health problems if not addressed immediately.

At this stage, the adrenal glands are no longer able to adapt to stress and have exhausted their functionality.

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