Which native american culture do these statements describe

Federally recognized tribes vary in population and land base but all are considered sovereign. The Inuit and Aleut. The most highly evolved prehistoric Native American culture was the.

Life events are experienced by Native Americans as. Most Western indigenous people fished hunted and gathered for sustenance. Why are there so few Paleo sites in Georgia.

Which Native American culture do these above statements describe. They were nomadic and left little behind. 2 Show answers Another question on History.

They were nomadic and left little behind. The Native Americans worshiped sun gods corn gods and nature spirits of birds bears and wolves. But problems arose for the Native Americans which held them back from their goal including new diseases the slave trade and.

Look for information that describes both the positive and negative effects of the industrial revolution. Women would gather and process acorns. Read the following scenario and then answer the questions.

According to the National Congress of American Indians Native Americans are All Native people of the United States and its trust territories ie American Indians Alaska Natives Native Hawaiians Chamorros and American Samoans as well as persons from Canadian. Along the Colorado River Native Americans gathered a variety of wild food and planted some tobacco. This lesson discusses the differences between common representations of Native Americans within the US.

These cultures sometimes referred to as Oasisamerica are characterized by dependence on agriculture formal social stratification population clusters and major architecture. ________ founded in 1944 in Denver Colorado was the first national organization representing Native Americans. Question 1 1 out of 1 points Which of these statements best describes California farming in the gilded age.

Typically animals that are used for food are also used for many other things. Natural and inducted members of the family. Do some research to further analyze the impact of the industrial revolution.

5 - The American. Select all the items that describe a command economy. There are 574 federally recognized American Indian and Alaska Native tribes and villages in the United States each with their own culture language and history.

It was registered as a lobby in Washington DC. The Native Americans were considered barbarous by the Europeans because they worshiped wooden images or carved and painted images. The winner will receive a prize of 100000.

Aadena bhopewell cmississippian dpueblo -. Native Americans Exploration. The Europeans came as messengers from God to convert the Natives to Christianity as they saw it.

During the colonial period Native Americans had a complicated relationship with European settlers. Why are there so few Paleo sites in Georgia. A process that unfolds.

In Native American culture status and honor are gained though. It resulted in a Native American version of the brain drain. The Homestead Act of 1862 greatly added to the number of small farms that came to dominate California agriculture.

Which native american culture do these statements describe. Native Americans are Indigenous peoples the only nonimmigrant people in the United States. The most highly evolved prehistoric Native American culture was the.

Students will learn about customs and traditions such as housing agriculture and ceremonial dress for the Tlingit Dinè Lakota. In Native families no distinction is made between. Every tribe has unique traditions and distinct styles of housing dress and food.

Sets with similar terms. Aadena bhopewell cmississippian dpueblo. The last website describes.

One way in which Native American culture embraces nature is through the use of all resources. Distribution by the government poor selection of goods high standard of living shortage of goods limited. According to the US.

Acorns were a pivotal part of the Californian diet. THIS SET IS OFTEN IN FOLDERS WITH. Two of the competitors Lynn and Tony are very good runners and both are good physical condition.

4 - The Colonization of Georgia. Rarely is any part of an animal wasted largely due to the belief that for a life to be taken it should at least be used and not killed in vain. They resisted the efforts of the Europeans to gain more of their land and control through both warfare and diplomacy.

The American Indian Archaic culture eventually evolved into two major prehistoric archaeological culture areas in the American Southwest and northern Mexico. Which Native American culture do these above statements describe. Select all that apply.

Thats about 15 percent of the population. Census Bureau there are about 45 million Native Americans and Alaska Natives in the United States today. And a more differentiated view of historical and contemporary cultures of five American Indian tribes living in different geographical areas.

It was characterized by large farms where a migrant labor force performed much of the work a. On the Trail of Tears new traditions and customs arose that have since become part of Native American culture. Which of the following statements is true of the National Congress of American Indians.

Two people are in a twenty-mile race. The first three websites provide descriptions of working conditions during the industrial revolution.

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Native North Americans - The National Archives

Virginia described by Captain John Smith and engraved by William Hole, [1612]
(MPG 1/284)
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• Tasks
• Background
• Teachers' notes
• External links

In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean, unlocking what Europeans quickly came to call the ‘New World’. Columbus encountered land with around two million inhabitants that was previously unknown to Europeans. He thought he had found a new route to the East, so he mistakenly called these people ‘Indians’. Over the next few centuries, European powers colonised the Americas, seeking new land and trade opportunities. Spanish and Portuguese colonised large parts of South America, and other European colonial powers, including English explorers, focused on establishing settlements in North America.

The first permanent English settlement called Jamestown (after James I of England) was established in 1607 in Virginia, North America. These first settlers – and those who sent them – were keen to find out about the area and see what they could gain. The settlers began to explore and they soon encountered the Native people of the Chesapeake Bay region. There were many tribes living there at the time, most belonging to three major chiefdoms: the Powhatan, the Piscataway, and the Nanticoke.

This lesson uses documents that describe what happened between early English settlers and Native Americans in Virginia. Investigate how the English described this early contact. How did Native Americans react to the arrival of Europeans? Were relations friendly and, if so, how and why did they change over time?

Tasks

1. Extract from 21 May 1607 from a journal of one of the settlers, likely Gabriel Archer, who is starting out on a journey of discovery with Captain Newport.

• What did the ‘Dyscoverers’ (explorers) take with them?
• Why might we today question the use of the term ‘Dyscoverers’ to describe the English settlers?
• How many people went on the exploration?
• Why do you think this journey of exploration was taking place?

2. This is an extract from 23 May 1607 from the journal seen in Source 1.

• What was done to show respect for Captain Newport?
• What did the local Indigenous people give to the colonists? [3 things]
• What did the Captain get?
• How do you think these explorers felt about this encounter?
• Why do you think the settlers were treated like this?

3.

• When the loss was reported, how quick and effective was the Native Americans response?
• Why do you think the materials were taken by the Native Americans?
• How is the situation resolved?
• From the evidence so far, how would you describe the relationship between the Europeans and the Native Americans? Make sure you explain your ideas – use the questions below to help:
  • Would you describe this as a friendly relationship?
  • How well have problems been resolved?
  • Are there any sign of nerves or worries? What about tensions or threats?

4. This extract from 24 May 1607 (Whitsunday) from Archer’s journal describes how the colonists erected a cross in the name of King James, then misled their Native American guide about its meaning.

1. Why did the British colonists raise the cross?
2. Why is the cross inscribed with the names of King James and Captain Newport?
3. In your own words, what were the colonists praying for?
4. There is reference to two kings in this extract. Who are they? What may lead to conflict between them?
5. Why do you think the colonists proclaimed King James I as ‘king’ here, close to their new settlement of Jamestown?
6. Nauirans was a Native American Arrohattoc man who came with the British settlers as their guide. What do you think he starts to ‘admire’ or pay attention to when watching this scene?
7. Why do you think the British settlers mislead Nauirans about the meaning behind the cross?
8. The term ‘savages’ used to describe Native American Indians in this source is unacceptable today. What does use of this term suggest about the author’s attitude towards the Native Americans?

5. This extract from 25 May 1607 from Archer’s journal describes the Native American inhabitants showing the settlers how they lived.

• What are the explorers shown how to do? [Think about what ‘manner of setting’ actually means]
• If the Native Americans are willing to do this, what does this suggest about them?
• How would you describe the role of food in the meetings between the Native Americans and the colonists?
• What hints does this extract give us about how this Native American community lived?

6.

• Which aspects of the Native Americans’ appearance seems to be most striking to the settler who wrote this passage? What does the author focus on, and why?
• Why do you think the author is giving such a detailed account of the Native Americans’ appearances?
• How might the description differ if it was given by one of the Native Americans themselves?
• What does the extract suggest about the roles of men and women within the tribes?

7. This extract from May-June 1607 describes how its author viewed the role of religion in the relationship with the Native Americans.

• What hints are given that suggest the religious beliefs of this particular Native American tribe?
• What are the religious beliefs of the author?
• Why do you think the colonists hope to convert the Native Americans to Christianity?
• Can you spot the words ‘their fury’? Why do you think this is included?
• Has your view on the relationship between the English settlers and the Native Americans changed since Source 3? If so, how?

Background

The first English explorers to North America arrived five years after Columbus in 1497, led by the Italian Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot). However, the English did not try to establish permanent settlements in the Americas until much later.

In 1585, English colonists attempted to settle at a place called Roanoke. The settlement lasted only for a short time. After initial friendly relations, hostilities developed as settlers became increasingly reliant on Native Americans for food and fighting eventually broke out between the two groups. The local chieftain was killed by the English and the colony was eventually abandoned.

On May 14, 1607, the first lasting English settlement in North America was established. The settlement was named ‘Jamestown’ after the current King of England, James I. Captain Newport led the expedition, staying until June 22nd, when he sailed back to England for supplies. The source material in this lesson comes from the first few months of the colony (CO 1/1).

After Captain Newport left for England, 104 settlers remained with Captain John Smith placed in charge. These settlers were unprepared, and did not plant the right crops or eat the right foods. They soon encountered starvation and famine, despite stealing food from the Native Americans. In the first three years, despite new arrivals, more than 80% of the settlers died from the combined effects of famine, disease, and warfare.

Throughout the period of European colonisation, millions of Native Americans were killed, either in fighting or by outbreaks of European diseases to which their bodies had no immunity, such as smallpox. It is estimated that between 80% and 95% of the Native American population died within the first 100-150 years of European contact with the Americas.

Those settlers that survived, together with new arrivals, began to cultivate the land, growing crops such as tobacco. As more settlers arrived, more Native American land was taken, and the Native Americans began to fight back.

Teachers' notes

This lesson asks pupils to investigate the early contact between Europeans and Native Americans. Using primary source diary extracts, pupils are able to understand and appreciate the first encounters between European settlers and the indigenous people of North America. Pupils are asked to explore the different aspects of these encounters and why they may have changed.

Some may want to extend this to a comparison between later feelings and actions taken against the Native Americans, examining European stereotypes of the Native Americans, for example the ‘noble and ignoble savage’. To what extent were certain stereotypes already in place while the English settlers were writing these statements? How and why did they subsequently develop and shift?

It is important to explore also what is missing from these sources. Who wrote these journal extracts, and what might their goals be? What other sources should be consulted? It’s especially noteworthy that these sources do not take into account the perspectives of the Native Americans themselves. Why might that be?

What are the limitations in using one perspective? The National Archives code for the document is CO, which stands for Colonial Office. You could discuss with students why the National Archives holds a collection of documents under this name.

The early period covered in this lesson was followed by centuries of colonisation marked by wars, broken treaties, and discriminatory policies that decimated the indigenous North American populations and still impact Native Americans today. Since these sources only show the perspectives of the English settlers, teachers may want to bring in other sources from Native American points of view. The National Museum of the American Indian is a good place to start.

Connections to the Curriculum

AQA GCSE History

Thematic study: Britain: Migration, empires and the people: c790 to the present day

Key stage 3: the development of Church, state and society in Britain 1509-1745:  the first colony in America

External links

Virtual Jamestown
A site giving a lot of information about the original settlement at Jamestown, including a 3D reconstruction of the settlement and information about the people who lived there.

We Have a Story to Tell: Native Peoples of the Chesapeake Region
A teacher’s resource provided by the National Museum of the American Indian. This guide offers contemporary Native perspectives about the historical experiences of the Native Americans of the Chesapeake, in particular, the Powhatan, Nanticoke, and Piscataway peoples.

Native Knowledge 360° Education Initiative
Native Knowledge 360° is an initiative from the National Museum of the American Indian to provide educators and students with new perspectives on Native American history and cultures.

American Indian Treaties
From The National Archives in the United States. Includes examples of and information on treaties between European settlers and Native American tribes.

The road to Jamestown
A National Archives talk on the history of Jamestown.

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Native Americans turned out to be Siberians and how plants become predators: scientific digest of the week

• Leonid Luneev
• BBC

May 23, 2020

.

Another selection of interesting scientific news of the week:

• Chingachguks from the shores of Lake Baikal
• Qumran manuscripts revealed a new secret
• Hunters from the world of flora
• Great joy in the family of little hippos

Russia - the birthplace of the Indians, or when America could be reached by land

Image copyright, Getty Images on the site of which the Bering Strait subsequently formed, into uncharted territory.

Yes, the first natives of North America were settlers themselves. Scientists suspected this, but they did not have solid evidence - they did not know exactly where these people came from. And here is such a very solid evidence finally found.

The author of the photo, MPI-EVA

The tooth used by scientists to identify the ancestor of the Indians

then he waited for the archaeologist of the Russian Academy of Sciences Svetlana Schneider to pay attention to it and pass it on to experts from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (MPI-EVA) in Leipzig.

"At first I was very skeptical that DNA could be preserved in it," admits the director of the institute, Johann Krause.

However, the dry and cold climate of Siberia preserved the genetic material of a man who lived about 14 thousand years ago, 4,500 kilometers from America. His genome was found to be two-thirds similar to that of today's native North Americans, which Krause says is evidence that this man was the oldest known Native American ancestor outside of America.

The scientist says that people who lived along the shores of Lake Baikal moved around the expanses of Siberia for many millennia, interacting with other ethnic groups, but the genetic isolation of the group from which the Indians originated occurred precisely in the Bering Strait region.

It is curious that today's inhabitants of Lake Baikal have a completely different genetic picture: apparently, the ancient population of these places was replaced 10 thousand years ago by migrants from northeast Asia.

• USA: Indians claim rights to ancient skeleton
• Cavemen of China turned out to be the ancestors of Asians

A new mystery of the Dead Sea Scrolls was discovered

Author of the photo, Getty Images

Fragments of the so-called Dead Sea Scrolls, thought to be empty and handed over to British experts solely for the study of the very fabric of the manuscripts, actually kept the text for centuries.

These ancient religious manuscripts, dating back to the 3rd century BC, were discovered as early as the 1940s in the Qumran caves in present-day Jordan.

Hundreds of scrolls with ancient texts have been carefully studied and are of great value to historians and theologians, but their authorship and origin remain a mystery. Well, some of the "empty" fragments, as not of particular interest, ended up at the University of Manchester, where they were noticed by an archaeologist from King's College London, Joan Taylor.

Photographer Manchester University

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"While examining one of the scraps with a magnifying glass, I found something that looked like a small, faded letter lamed, L from the Hebrew alphabet," says Joan. "Honestly, at first I thought that I imagined it, because these scraps were considered empty and were even cut into strips to study the skin itself. But then, barely distinguishable letters began to appear on other scraps.

In total, Joan and colleagues examined 51 snippets and identified six of them that required further study using multispectral analysis. This analysis showed that four of the fragments contain readable passages of text in Aramaic or Hebrew.

Research has not been completed yet, but on the best preserved fragment, you can see four lines of text, 15-16 letters each. Scholars have even been able to read the word Shabbat, which they believe may indicate that it is a passage from the book of the ancient prophet Ezekiel.

"With the new technology for deciphering ancient texts at hand, I had to try developing these letters," says Taylor.

Of course, some of the letters that appear on a piece of parchment may seem like an insignificant discovery to some, but this is not an ordinary parchment, but part of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the authenticity of which was confirmed by official excavations in Qumran. And for those who study ancient biblical tests, each letter is priceless.

• Scientists in Israel deciphered one of the dead sea scrolls
• Cumran manuscripts: another cave
• archaeologists in Britain decipher the graffiti of Roman legionnaires
9000 9000 9000

in each plant, a potential predator

is hidden, Gett. Images

Photo caption,

Venus flytrap

How does a plant become a predator? It is only in the cinema that a drop of blood is enough for him to start hunting, in life everything is somewhat more complicated. And yet, evolution has given us several plants that are not content with the fruits of photosynthesis and are ready to grab prey rich in proteins and other useful elements on the side.

Pitchers, for example, invented a pit-trap filled with enzymes, falling into which insects dissolve like in gastric juice.

Others, like the Venus flytrap, use a modified leaf trap that snaps shut when the insect touches sensitive hairs, and then the same process of digestion begins.

But how did carnivorous plants come to such a life? To figure this out, Jörg Schultz and Rainer Gedrich, two Ph.D. biologists from the University of Würzburg, sequenced the genomes of the flycatcher and two of its close relatives and compared them with nine other carnivorous plants and the harmless beets and papaya.

And here they were in for a big surprise. It turned out that the key moment in the evolution of meat-eating plants was the duplication of the entire genome, which occurred in a single ancestor of all predators from the world of flora, who lived about 60 million years ago. This duplication released copies of the genes that used to be responsible for roots, leaves, and so on, and the first hunter in the plant world, so to speak, reprogrammed them. Relatively speaking, the genes that commanded the roots to absorb nutrients from the soil changed the order, forcing them to extract food from insects.

Over time, prey and its size, fishing technique changed, and the plants themselves changed. According to Gedrich's calculations, the evolution of predator plants went through at least 6 stages.

Moreover, the scientist believes that most modern plants already have enough gene set to try themselves as hunters. "The road to the life of a predator is open to all plants," he says.

• Carnivorous plants are disappearing in England. They will try to revive
• To live on Mars and not burn: what the most tenacious plants of the Earth are capable of
• Will the plants hear you if you start singing to them?

Welcome, Mama Mabel!

Image copyright, Getty Images

The San Diego Zoo is celebrating the addition of pygmy hippopotamuses to its family, with mom Mabel giving birth to a well-fed, healthy baby boy in April. The zoo management was in no hurry with the news to make sure that everything was in order with the baby, but now the management reports that the young hippo has a good appetite, he has already gained weight (from 5.6 to 11 kg), and is confidently on his feet and follows her mother everywhere.

After getting acquainted with the water in the basin, the hippo is already allowed into a real pool, where he demonstrates the ability to close his nostrils and hold his breath.

Dad, 13-year-old Elgon, is not yet allowed to see his mother and son, because pygmy hippos do not live in families in the wild. However, at the zoo they will still be together in the same pen, but only a little later, in a month, when the baby is still growing up.

• A rare baby giraffe was born in a British zoo
• A rare white koala was born in an Australian zoo

Pygmy Liberian hippos (Choeropsis liberiensis) are much smaller than their common counterparts (Hippopotamus amphibius) and weigh "only" 160 to 270 kg (common ones are 10 times heavier). They are more blunt-nosed, they have a rounded head and eyes set on the sides, and not on top, like in ordinary hippos.

Less than 2,500 pygmy hippos remain in the wild. They live in forested rivers in West Africa and are threatened with extinction as their natural habitat shrinks.

This is the first time a pygmy hippo has been born at the San Diego Zoo in more than three decades, and the management says it gives hope that pygmy hippos can be preserved, at least in captivity.

Native Americans in Western films and video games

Alexey Salin, Polina Khanova. More than Bows and Arrows: The Portrayal of Native Americans in Western Movies and Video Games [1].


1. Introduction

"Western" as a genre name is polymedial and covers literature, cinema, television, musicals, theatre, circus shows and many other cultural forms. And, although the study of the video game genre must necessarily differ from any other genre-oriented studies of culture, as, for example, Mark Wolf [Wolf 2001] believes, in this article we will be more interested in the genre itself and its implementation in various media (specifically in video games and cinema) .

This methodological problem lies behind the famous confrontation between ludology and narratology as approaches to the study of video games: can video games be explored in a similar way to other kinds of narratives (e.g. cinema, literature, comics, etc.), or are they a unique kind of cultural experience that should be analyzed with the help of special, unique approaches? A ludologist sees video games as intuitively and obviously distinct from other arts, and therefore a genre framework for video games should include categories like "freeplay", "multiplayer real-time strategy" or "multiplayer arena" that are not applicable in any other medium [Gregersen 2014]. The narrativist, in turn, sees the video game as a carrier of generally independent narrative structures that can be “translated” from one medium to another: “if a computer game is a narrative medium, then stories from other media can be retold in the form of computer games, and computer games should be retold in other media” [Yul 2015: 67].

If we intend to trace lines of inheritance between mediums—i.e. how genre-specific traits are transferred from films and television series to video games, then we must take a narratological approach. But we will consider not only narrative (although narrative plays a significant role), but a complex set of genre characteristics, including history, themes, archetypes and images / visual conventions. Genre-specific stylization is an essential part of the appeal of western films - it is genre cinema, perhaps even the purest case of genre cinema, "the most important of genres" [Buscombe 2003: 19]. As strong as the temptation may be to compile an exhaustive list of the stories, themes, archetypes, and images that make the narrative a western and nothing else, it is hardly possible. In our opinion, the western is not characterized by a certain set of plot moves, images or themes; nor is spatio-temporal localization decisive (the American Frontier of the late 19th century at first glance seems to be a suitable definition, until you remember the existence of "space westerns", "red westerns" produced by the USSR, Japanese and Korean "westerns" and many other permutations of the genre ). Therefore, for our purposes, the definition according to the model of family resemblance formulated by Wittgenstein in paragraph 67 of “philosophical investigations” will be more appropriate [Wittgenstein 1994: 111-112]: although no one has yet been able to compile an exhaustive and consistent list of features that define the western, there are a series of features that unite westerns together, eventually forming what we recognize as a genre.

In a transmedial study such as ours, this family turns out to be quite large and includes examples of the genre as far apart as Outlaws (1997) and Assassin’s Creed III (2012). However, different forms and platforms still allow us to trace the chains of family resemblances that connect them to the great Western family.

Our study will focus on one narrative feature that is common to all cultural products we study: the conflict between the native population of America and the European settlers and their descendants. This trope, despite its wide popularity in westerns, is not ubiquitous and thus cannot serve as a genre definition. This is just the frame that guides the selection of material in our study.

The long history of the Western in film shows at least two main ways in which Native Americans are portrayed. Under 19In the 1950s, most Westerns portrayed Native Americans as the building blocks of the American Empire (in support of the "manifest destiny" doctrine). In the 1950s, with the advent of the so-called "revisionist westerns", a new trend arose. For example, Matthew Carter draws the line on films such as Shane ( Shane , 1953), The Searchers ( The Searchers , 1956) and The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance ( The Man who Shot Liberty Valance , 1962):

… such films deliberately problematized their own status as westerns, their own historical role in constructing misguided cultural prejudices and beliefs, and the nature of their relationship to the myth of the West and contemporary events [Carter 2014: 116].

These films questioned the core myth of the Americana, as well as the nationalist and racist presuppositions behind it. As a result, in newer westerns we see Native Americans as positive characters much more often (and in principle characters , and not the blind unreasoning force of destruction), and the colonization of the Wild West is depicted in less idealized colors. Although the exact date of this break remains a subject of debate (as Carter himself confirms), the boundary between the classic and revisionist western is quite noticeable and will play a role in our further research. Our main task will be to identify a similar break in the history of video games and analyze the tropes that have shaped the image of Native Americans in video games before and after this break.

2. 1982 - 2006: Alien Story

Games released between 1982 and 2006 that had Native Americans as characters identify Native Americans as follows: Native Americans - capitalized Aliens. They are supposedly absolutely and undeniably different from us. Three main tropes form this myth of Strangeness: savagerization , hypersexualization and supernaturalization .

2.1. Savagering

One of the most striking stereotypes in the portrayal of Native Americans in twentieth-century films is that of the "savage". As Jacqueline Kilpatrick suggests in Celluloid Indians, he comes in two main forms: the bloodthirsty savage and the noble savage, or more simply, the bad Indian and the good Indian [Kilpatrick 1999: 2]. The bloodthirsty savage is a cruel, half-animal creature that attacks white people and kidnaps their children. The noble savage is a wise, exotic creature, not spoiled by society and communicating with nature. We see examples of the former in such classic westerns as "Stagecoach" ( Stagecoach , 1939) and Union Pacific ( Union Pacific , 1939). Thus, in the Union Pacific, the culmination of the film is the attack of the Indians on the train. While the three protagonists (white Euro-Americans) hide in a derailed train car and try to call for help by telegraph, we are presented with a long and rather repulsive scene of an Indian looting of a train: they unroll and tear rolls of decorative fabrics, shoot at a piano, frightened by the sounds it makes, and in general, they indulge in the senseless destruction of various elements of the Europeanized way of life.

The first films traditionally classified as westerns, The Pioneers and Kit Carson (both 1903) are still silent, and one of them already plays out this stereotypical plot: the Indians attack the settlers and kidnap their daughter, and the protagonists go to save her [Aquila 2015: 15]. The same plot would later form The Searchers (1956), one of the most important revisionist westerns, and not only it: the structure of The Pioneers became a cliché for many films, as did the image of Native Americans presented in it.

The stereotype of the "noble savage" may seem more sympathetic than the "murderous savage", but only at the most minimal level, since it also does not tell the audience anything about the real culture of Native Americans [Georgakas 1972: 26]. This stereotype, of course, goes back to Rousseau and his concept of a noble savage, not spoiled by the decaying European civilization. In this trope, the nature/culture dilemma plays out a little differently: Indigenous peoples are seen as the guardians of something that "civilized" Europeans have lost and yearn to regain. As is clear from this formula, this romanticization of Native Americans, which is the reverse side of savagerisation, is also organized exclusively around white people, their needs and interests. The authors of Unthinking Eurocentrism discuss the hypocritical nature of the noble savage stereotype: for example, an Indian may be depicted positively as wise and peaceful, but the same Indian is being taught vital skills by a white Anglo-Saxon protagonist [Shohat et al. 2014: 194], as it happens in the film A Man Called Horse ( A Man Called Horse , 1970).

As already mentioned, the conflict between "cowboys and Indians" is one of the fundamental plots of the Western genre: it is one of the manifestations of a deeper opposition between nature and culture. Therefore, one of the easiest ways to connect a game to the vast "family" of the Western genre and its popularity is to introduce Indians into it in the most simple and recognizable way.

How can a gamer understand that the characters in the game are Native Americans? They must wear traditional costumes, including feathers in their hair, and carry a bow and arrow in their hands. This was the main idea that has guided game designers since 1982 to 2006: To create a Native American, you need to use stereotypes and clichés from popular culture, including Westerns. These elements do not aim to represent real Native American cultures, they are only meant to provide the player with recognizable iconography: war paint and feathers serve as uniforms that allow the player to identify the enemy. The limited graphical capabilities of early arcade games also forced game creators to depict these stereotypical elements in an extremely minimalized form, roughening the character down to a few recognizable strokes (similar to how poor image quality in the early days of cinema led to the "white hat, black hat" stereotype in early movie westerns). ). While identifying the protagonist in a game is not a problem, the "enemy" must be labeled "Indian" in order for the game to be identified as a western.

This started already in Custer's Revenge (1982), a game that caused a public outcry. The game's protagonist, Custer, named after General George Armstrong Custer, an American Civil War commander killed by Indians during the Battle of the Little Bighorn, seeks revenge and seeks to rape a naked Native American woman tied to a wooden post. The game sparked protest among feminists and Native American rights organizations and was eventually banned from sale [Basler 2014]. Be that as it may, what is specifically "Indian" about this woman? She has a feather in her hair. Arrows also fly over her and Caster's heads, which Caster must overcome in order to exact his revenge. Even with the most basic "pixelated" graphics, the combination of the feathered headdress and arrows allows the player to identify the antagonist as an "Indian".

The same trend is very pronounced in almost all of the early Native American video games. In Indian Attack (1983), the gamer's task is to protect the ranch from the Indians who seek to scalp the protagonist and his household. Similarly, in one of the levels in Hammer Boy (1991), the player must defend a frontier fort from a huge number of Indians who are shooting at it with bows. In a more "childish" game Quick Draw McGraw (1990) the protagonist - the stallion Dro McGraw - protects the train from Indians and bandits. Of course, Native Americans wear large feather headdresses and are armed with bows and arrows. All of these early games portray the Indians as an abstract, undifferentiated aggressive mass, similar to the aliens from Space Invaders (1978). This presentation of the Indians as a crowd of cruel savages with primitive weapons becomes a way of alienating them. This trope, of course, was borrowed from the movie westerns where it thrived: the "Indian menace" is an almost standard plot element, the name given to an abstract external force driving a plot revolving around white characters forward. A typical example is Stagecoach (1939), where the threat of an Indian attack forces the white heroes to act together and show their true nature [Schatz 2003].

Later, individual Native American characters (as opposed to an undifferentiated mass) begin to appear in games, but they are also set with the help of clichés of savagery. In Outlaws (1997), a Native American "enlightens" new lands along with other bandits. His name is Two Feathers - the use of common nouns as Native American names is also an established stereotype in popular culture. He is the classic "noble savage": wears stereotypical Native American clothing and war face paint; he fights using only knives (unlike all other opponents armed with firearms).

In the 2005 game Darkwatch , the Native American Tala (also known as the Crouching Wolf) wears feathers in her hair, though the rest of her clothing doesn't really match them. What's more, other Native Americans continue to wear feathered headdresses and shoot arrows even after they become the walking dead. Their Alienness overcomes even death, and their transformation into blood-sucking dead alienates them from the gamer even more decisively.

What's especially noteworthy about these stereotypes is that they even appear in video games that are set in modern times, not in the days of the Wild West. So, night wolf from Mortal Kombat (1992) and T. Hawk of Super Street Fighter II (1993) wear feathered headdresses and paint their faces. In the game series Turok - Turok: Dinosaur Hunter (1997), Turok 2: Seeds of Evil (1998), Turok 3: Shadow of Oblivion (2000) - the player avatar wears a traditional costume and uses a bow and arrow along with with guns, blasters and grenade launchers. He even has an upgraded bow with explosive arrows that will never let the player forget that he is playing as an Indian. AT Metal Gear Solid (1998) The "boss" Indian Vulcan Raven, armed with a machine gun, wears war paint on his face. In Prey (2006), Enisi, a Cherokee Indian, wears a traditional Native American outfit, which looks rather odd since the game is set in the 21st century. Moreover, it is in this costume that Enisi is on board the alien ship, who kidnap him along with the main character of the game, Tommy and Jen, the latter's girlfriend. Apparently, even while roaming the universe, Native Americans will wear traditional costumes and headdresses, paint their faces, and fight with bows and arrows.

2.2. Hypersexualization

The history of the objectification of women in video games is a frequent topic in video game research and related fields [Sarkeesian 2013; Lynch et al. 2016]. Native American women also could not escape this trail. Native American women are objectified in two ways: as an object of sexual desire and as a socially sanctioned object of violence.

Trope of hypersexualization first appears in video game westerns at Custer's Revenge (1982). A Native American woman tied to a pole has huge breasts, which can be clearly seen despite graphics limitations. She is a sexual object that exists only for the sake of the male protagonist, the object of his violence. Interestingly, Native American women have been hypersexualized even in games designed for children, when the developers are not tasked with attracting an adult male audience: for example, Humba Wumba from Banjo-Kazooie (1998). Jen of Prey (2006) also has a similar hypertrophied sexuality, but its objectification is further enhanced by the fact that it turns out to be a “lady in distress”, which the male protagonist Tommy must save from the clutches of the aliens.

Perhaps the most prominent example of hypersexualization of Native American women is the tala from the already mentioned Darkwatch (2004). Although the game takes place at the end of the 19th century, Tala's clothes do not correspond to this era at all (and are not even styled after it). She wears a tight latex suit that accentuates her figure. Her sexual energy and appearance ultimately tempt protagonist Jericho Cross into biting her and turning her into a vampire, allowing her to open a portal to the world of the dead. This, in turn, leads us to another trope that builds the notion of Native Americans as Outsiders.

2.3. Supernaturalization

Native Americans in general simply love to open portals to other worlds - this is what video games released between 1982 and 2006 tell us and show us. Tala is just one in a long line of world-traveling Native American shamans in video games.

Supernatural or quasi-supernatural forces have long been a stereotype in the depiction of Native Americans: in the movies we meet Indians who turn into animals and birds (wolves, hawks), control natural phenomena, travel to the world of the dead, etc. For example, in Mackenna's Gold (1969) Indian spirits cause earthquakes and landslides to scare away white treasure seekers; in Jim Jarmusch's "Dead Man" (1995), a Native American acts as a likeness of Charon, escorting the protagonist to the world of the dead. Possibly the first Indian video game protagonist appears in Whomp'Em (1990). It is particularly interesting due to its origins: Whomp'Em is a game version of Saiyūki World 2: Tenjōkai no Majin (1990). In the original Japanese version, the player's avatar was Sun Wukong, a popular character in Chinese culture who has supernatural powers: he can transform into various animals and objects, move at excessively high speeds, and control the elements of nature. Creators Whomp'Em apparently decided that the best Western popular culture equivalent of Sun Wukong would be an Indian boy.

Many characters are described as shamans or magicians, able to communicate with spirits. For example, the already mentioned Humba Wumba from Banjo-Kazooie (1998) is a shaman, as is Spirit Dancer from Brave: The Search for Spirit Dancer’s (2005). Access to the supernatural world is also open to the protagonists from the game series Turok . In these games, evil forces from the Lost Lands are trying to invade our world. And only the Indians, thanks to their supernatural abilities, can travel through portals (which strongly resemble totems) to the Lost Lands and fight the creatures that inhabit them. Other Native Americans in video games may come into contact with the forces of nature: Nightwolf from Mortal Kombat (1992) transforms into a wolf when performing his fatality kick, Raven Volcano from Metal Gear Solid (1998) can control crows. In Prey (2006), Tommy gains the ability to travel to the Land of the Ancients to communicate with the souls of his fallen tribesmen. They teach him to separate his soul from his body and thus overcome material obstacles, and also give him the spirit of a hawk at his disposal, which subsequently helps him in battles.

However, the depiction of Native Americans as bearers of a special connection to nature and access to spiritual powers is often far from innocent: combined with the "bad Indian" trope, supernaturalization serves to portray the Indian as an even more dangerous adversary. In western game Cowboy Kid (1992) The player's task is to hunt down six criminals and defeat them. Two of them are Native Americans. The first can call the dead from the graves, the second can communicate with hawks.

Along with savagerization and hypersexualization, supernaturalization builds a mythology of the Outlander around Native Americans. They, unlike the supposed "us", remain wild even today, using modern weaponry. They are so sexual that "we" cannot see them as anything other than objects of desire. They can communicate with worlds that "we" would never have access to.

3. 2006-2014: Building bridges

In the early 1960s, there was a turn in the movie westerns: the inflation of traditional westerns and the rise of the civil rights movement created a need for a new, more nuanced approach to the mythology of the Old West. Negative depictions of Native Americans began to be seen as problematic—by both Hollywood and the state. After World War II, the US began to actively establish its hegemony as an exporter of popular culture and, therefore, had to take into account the demands of the international market. The excess violence and racism of the early westerns were not marketed overseas, so the American film industry had to rethink its values ​​[FitzGerald 2014].

Another revisionist trend was that the creators began to make efforts to create more complex and realistic images of Native Americans. An early example of this trend, Broken Arrow ( Broken Arrow , 1950), attempts to portray Apaches in a slightly less dehumanized way than usual. Kasdan and Tavernetti commend Little Big Man ( Little Big Man , 1970) for being undeniably a western, showing the Cheyenne tribe as a dynamic and cohesive community that retains many realistically depicted traditions, and acknowledges crimes against the indigenous population of the United States [Kasdan et al. 1993:121].

We can trace this same trend towards the humanization of Native Americans in video games released after 2006. Three main tropes define this turn: familiarization , symmetrization and sacrification .

3.1. Familiarization

Familiarization begins with kinship between Native Americans and Europeans, expressed in a series of half-blood characters such as John Wayne's Hondo and Chuck Norris's Cordell Walker. They have access to all the privileges of white people, but can "draw" special powers from their Native American heritage whenever they wish. To the modern eye, these characters look like the perfect embodiment of colonialism in a single character: the "Indian" side of the character is exploited when necessary, and suppressed when it is not needed (it is especially characteristic that such roles are usually played by white actors).

In video games, this trend first appears in Red Dead Revolver (2004). The protagonist of the game, Red Harlow, is half-Indian: his mother, Shooting Star, is a member of the Red Wolf Tribe, and his father, Nate Harlow, is white. But the familiarization trope plays a more important role in Gun (2005). This game, like Custer's Revenge a couple of decades earlier, caused a public controversy: The Association for American Indian Development (AAID) published a petition against Gun , demanding a ban on this game [Schmidt 2005]. AAID protested the game's unwarranted violence against Native Americans and the dehumanizing portrayal of Native Americans as savages ready to scalp anything that moves. The same can be said for many games released between 1982 and 2006, especially games from the 80s. Be that as it may, the protagonist of Gun Colton White, despite his telling surname, learns that he himself is actually from the Apache tribe. Colton also learns that when he was a child, a shaman from another tribe, the Blackfeet, cured him. Thus, whites and Indians are able to raise and care for children together. Similarly, at Assassin's Creed III (2012) the protagonist Radunhageydu (or Connor) is the son of a European Haytem Kenway and a Native American Gadzidzio.

3.2. Symmetrization

In the same Gun , Colton White reaches the city of Empire (Empire) and starts working in the local police and soon realizes that the so-called justice of the mayor is not much different from the chaos and tyranny of savages. In the end, Colton White finds out that the mayor himself is in cahoots with the antagonist of the game, Reed, and that his main enemies are not the Indians, but the mayor and his accomplices. As a result, he takes the side of the bandits who call themselves the Resistance, and the Apache Indians, who cease to be enemies. He ceases to consider himself a servant of the Law and the Empire (both the city with a speaking name, and the United States, of which this city is the personification), since imperial ideas, from his point of view, are compromised. It soon turns out that the people who scalped everyone at the beginning of the game were actually white people dressed as Indians and working for the main antagonist, Magruder. (This plot twist highlights another problematic aspect of Native American stereotyping in movies: the performance of their roles by white actors. Gun turns this film industry practice into an antagonist's weapon, thus highlighting the link between racism and imperialism in the film industry and beyond).

The great divide between Native Americans and Euro-American civilization narrows dramatically as they meet a common enemy: the city of Empire and Magrudera, who rule by illegitimate violence. The player takes a position symmetrical to that of the Native Americans. It may well be that this is the reason why the AAID petition did not find proper public support: Gun actually questioned racist prejudices against Native Americans rather than legitimizing them [Sharam 2011].

Symmetrization reappears in Red Dead Redemption (2010), the second installment in the Red Dead game series. The protagonist of the game, John Marston, agrees to work for government agents as a bounty hunter and goes to the Wild West. He meets Nastas, a Native American who supplies government agents with information. When Marston first communicates with Nastas, the anthropologist Harold MacDougal, a comic character who seems to be guided by the same stereotypes that we considered in connection with the "pre-revisionist" westerns, acts as an intermediary, and Nastas directly points out to him the falsity of these stereotypes. .

In a revolutionary move, Red Dead Redemption was also the first in a video game to explicitly admit that Euro-Americans were violent against Native Americans in order to conquer their lands. When MacDougal and Nastas communicate a second time, Nastas reminds him (and us) of the suffering of his people:

N a s ta s: My people have already experienced many catastrophes. All this land used to be ours.

M a c d u g a l: And now we have brought a piece of civilization here. It certainly wasn't easy, but it's not easy for anyone, Nastas. I knew a man at Yale whose father shot 18 natives in Wyoming at sunset one day. He was very, very traumatized and addicted to choir boys.

N a t a s: You are too stupid for a wise man, mister ( Red Dead Redemption ).

The game's ending disqualifies European civilization and the Law: John Marston is killed by government agents after he has paid off all his debts to the state. It becomes more difficult for the player to identify with the US empire, which turns out to be perhaps much wilder than the native population of America.

This plot device closely echoes what happens in the greatest revisionist westerns in cinema - for example, John Ford's "Cheyenne Autumn" ( Cheyenne Autumn , 1964), Soldier in Blue ( Soldier Blue , 1970) about the Sand Creek massacre, and perhaps the key revisionist Western, The Searchers ( The Searchers , 1956), depicting the white protagonist, the character of John Wayne, is much more violent and obsessed with violence than any stereotypical "bloodthirsty savages". This reversal is emphasized by the fact that it is Wayne's character who does all the violence on the screen - even the scalping. while all the alleged atrocities of the Indians remain behind the scenes - they are only talked about or hinted at. This elegant device, however, sags somewhat - the problematization of racial violence in the film is presented as a personal internal drama of Wayne's character, and not a systemic public problem [Georgakas 1972:26].

Similar criticism can be applied to video games, especially the implementation of this same symmetrization trope in Assassin's Creed III . The Native Americans are not Aliens from the start of the game: when Kenway meets Gajijio, she is revealed to be just a human who wants to free her fellow Americans without using any supernatural powers. She negotiates with Kenway on the same basis of argument as he does, and, finally, they both have a common enemy.

3.3. Sacrifice

Familiarization and Symmetrization attempt to subvert Native American Strangeness by incorporating them into the entire human race. but what characterizes them as members of this genus? What role do they play in this kind? Another trope, which we call sacrificial, offers the following answer to this question: the role of Native Americans is to sacrifice themselves in the name of white American interests.

AT Red Dead Revolver An Indian named Shadow of the Wolf dies while rescuing his nephew and protagonist of the game, Red Harlow, from prison. The Native American sacrifices himself so that the Euro-American can move on. In Red Dead Redemption , Nastas, as well as the Indians from the "Dutchman" van der Linde gang, die during the course of the story. They turn out to be just pawns in the conflict of white people fighting each other.

The most striking example of sacrification we find in Assassin's Creed III . In it, the Mother of the Family initiates the protagonist Radunhageid into the secret mission of their clan: they must guard the sanctuary hidden in their lands. It is one of the shelters built by the Isu civilization to save the world from future disasters. But Radunhageydu does not know anything about this, and this is a key moment in the development of the plot: he believes that he is acting for the good of his people, but in fact the actions that Isu demand from Radunhageydu ultimately lead to the extermination of the Kanienkehaka tribe. But on the other hand, back in 2012, the Euro-American Desmond will be able to gain access to the Isu hideout and save the human race from the Apocalypse.

Native Americans become victims for the future of all mankind, but in this future there will be none of them. Familiarization and Symmetrization present Native Americans as members of the human community, but this image is actually undermined by sacrificialization that defines them as that part of the human race that must die out so that the rest (i.e. Euro-Americans) can live.

4. Overcoming strangeness

There have been two main trends in the history of Native American representation in video games until today. The first of these was alienation, which turned Native Americans into complete Aliens in games released between 1982 to 2006. This operation of alienation resulted in Native Americans becoming something of a Kantian "thing in itself."

Around 2004-2006, a new trend arose that can be called Hegelian. Games released after this watershed tend to include Native Americans as part of the whole of humanity, but in a transfigured form, as a dependent moment in the development of the Empire. Alienation is replaced by "withdrawal".

It would not be easy to find even one game that would not fall into any of the above traps and would avoid both ways of legitimizing the Empire: Kantian and Hegelian. Are there Native American games that aren't "Empire games"? [Dyer-Witherfod et al. 2009]

inFamous: Second Son (2014) is worth considering. The plot of this game does not revolve around Native Americans, Euro-Americans and their conflict. What's interesting about this game is that it portrays Native Americans on the same basis that it portrays Euro-Americans: supernatural powers are available to both the former and the latter; this is not a game about supernaturalization. Equally, they are not victims in the name of the future progress of US civilization. They, like other Americans, turn out to be subjects of biopolitics and normalization in Fuucault's terminology [Foucault 1999; 2004]. The conflict between the US Empire and the Native Americans turns into a conflict between government machinery and local communities.

On the other hand, inFamous: Second Son makes a strong political statement. The game takes place in Seattle and its suburbs, and where the Akomishi tribe lives in the game, the Duwamish tribe lives in the real world. The government officially considers this tribe extinct, but they are real and are still fighting for recognition of their existence [Gravning 2014]. That the game shows them existing alongside other ordinary people who, like them, are subject to government control is the main rhetorical device that inFamous: Second Son . This is a simple but very important statement: Indians exist on the same basis as other people, despite the fact that states may not recognize this.

5. Conclusion

InFamous: Second Son deals with contemporary Native American culture and issues, breaking with traditions inherited from the cinematic western. This brings us to a conclusion about the evolution of this genre in video games. As a narrative medium (to a certain extent), games can be placed in the same genre categories as other narrative forms (literature, cinema, television, etc.). By fulfilling the transmedia requirements of the genre (stories, themes, archetypes and imagery), video games have taken advantage of the existing popularity of the western as a genre, but at the same time have fallen victim to the same stereotypes, among which one of the most striking and controversial is the depiction of Native Americans. Tellingly, the first to appear on the market in 19The 1980s video game westerns by no means reflected the then state of genre evolution in cinema: by then, cinematic westerns had long problematized the genre's ambiguous past and had reached a significant level of reflexive complexity. Whereas early video game westerns are stereotyped more like early movie westerns than modern ones.

The turn that took place in westerns in the 1950s and 1960s also took place in the gaming industry, where it took place in the mid-2000s: video games had their own “revisionist” trend and a turn from alienation to withdrawal. From this we can draw an unexpected conclusion: if we consider the history of culture as an evolution towards reflexivity, complication and expansion of representation, then the emergence of a new narrative medium (video games) does not start from the same step on which the most successful predecessor is already at this moment. The evolution of video games in the western genre has succinctly repeated the evolution of the western in cinema and, perhaps, will lead it further.

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