Descriptive in psychology

The 3 Descriptive Research Methods of Psychology

Descriptive research methods are used to define the who, what, and where of human behavior and other psychological phenomena.

Psychologists and researchers use a myriad of tools when studying human and animal behavior.

Descriptive research methods in psychology are designed to scientifically describe or explain what happens to whom and where, as opposed to how or why it happens.

This type of research is often conducted in a natural setting and may be the precursor to other types of scientific research that delves deeper into a phenomenon. The goal, according to a 2016 paper, is finding the “ultimate truth.”

There are three main methods used in descriptive research, each with their own strengths and weaknesses.

Descriptive research methods are scientific tools used by researchers and psychologists for gathering information and describing the specifics of behaviors, patterns, and other phenomena. These methods focus on the who, what, and where, versus the why or how.

In psychology, descriptive research is used often to define certain behaviors or traits that are observed. Because descriptive research is typically concerned with the “raw truth,” it is often conducted as naturally as possible without introducing any manipulation or variables.

Descriptive research may be an initial step before the other two types of psychological research are conducted:

Correlational research: examines two variables at once, and may be used to identify patterns of relationships
Experimental research: determines cause and effect by exposing one group to a particular variable, while another is not exposed to the variable

Descriptive research does not typically rely on a hypothesis and may be more flexible than the other types of psychological research. This type of research can act as a springboard for further exploration by allowing scientists to gather information needed to form a hypothesis. That hypothesis could then serve as the basis for a correlational study or a formal experiment.

There are three methods scientists use to obtain descriptive research:

observation
case studies
surveys

Each method comes with strengths and weaknesses. Scientists may opt for one method over another depending on the type of information they need and from whom.

The observational method refers to scientists watching the behavior of animals or humans in a natural setting. Researchers may use the data to pinpoint trends or patterns that might warrant further exploration.

The goal of the observational method is to provide an unbiased “snapshot” of a particular population at a particular time, according to a 2020 research review rating the efficacy of different descriptive research methods.

However, this method must be conducted carefully to garner accurate results. If the subjects being observed are aware someone is watching them, they might become uncomfortable and change their behavior. This is sometimes called “the Hawthorne effect.”

Yet, there are some ways a researcher may be able to mitigate the Hawthorne effect, such as trying to blend in so well that the observers do not notice the researchers, or telling the participant they are observing something different from what they’re actually looking at.

Additionally, researchers may also transmit bias to those they observe, resulting in the participants adjusting their behavior to the bias.

For these reasons, the observational method may be more accurate for scientists studying animal behavior, rather than human.

Case studies typically focus on an individual or small group of people and can provide a wealth of information about something very specific in its natural setting.

The goal of this research method is to provide detailed information about a contained phenomenon in a natural environment. For example, a person or small group of people with a rare disease or trait might be observed by a researcher to produce data on that specific disease or trait.

This precision can pose benefits and risks to case studies.

Participants may be less likely to drop out or refuse to follow up with researchers in this type of research format, which can increase the accuracy of case study findings.

And despite the ability case studies have to collect a lot of information about something particular, scientists and researchers may still be unable to generalize their findings to the greater population. Thus, a case study may not be representative, which can make findings unreliable beyond the case study’s specific scope.

One challenge of the case study is that the definition of this descriptive research method can vary widely among scientists, across and even within disciplines. Yet, some scientists suggest that case studies can and should be used more broadly, as one 2020 paper argues.

When a broad sample size is needed to assess specific information, a researcher’s best tool may be a survey. The goal of a survey is to gain insight into a particular behavior among a large group of people.

Survey research involves participants responding to researchers’ questions through questionnaires, virtually or in person. Surveys can assess a broader variety of people in their sample than a case study, but cannot provide the same depth of information.

As a descriptive research method, surveys can have similar inaccuracies to observation. Participants may change their answers out of concern or fear for how they could be perceived.

Virtual versus in-person surveys

Online surveys may be more accurate because participants are not answering questions face-to-face with an interviewer. However, because no interviewer is present, answers cannot be discussed beyond what is provided.

Online surveys may also have lower response rates. In-person interviews might provide better response rates, but are often more expensive to produce. Phone interviews may be faster and cheaper, but are commonly less in-depth and risk participants dropping out.

Descriptive research methods can be crucial for psychological researchers to establish and describe the natural details of a particular phenomenon.

There are three major methods of descriptive research:

observation
case studies
surveys

These research methods are not based on a hypothesis, but rather serve as a means for gathering data before diving deeper into other types of scientific research. Descriptive research is often the first step in forming a hypothesis or answering a question.

Each method of descriptive research has risks and benefits, including the possibility of bias, often as a result of participants adjusting their behavior as a consequence of being watched.

Without descriptive research, it may be virtually impossible to reach the stage of scientific experimentation where cause and effect are determined, or to prove correlation among a specific set of variables.

The 3 Descriptive Research Methods of Psychology

Descriptive research methods are used to define the who, what, and where of human behavior and other psychological phenomena.

Psychologists and researchers use a myriad of tools when studying human and animal behavior.

Descriptive research methods in psychology are designed to scientifically describe or explain what happens to whom and where, as opposed to how or why it happens.

There are three main methods used in descriptive research, each with their own strengths and weaknesses.

Descriptive research may be an initial step before the other two types of psychological research are conducted:

Correlational research: examines two variables at once, and may be used to identify patterns of relationships
Experimental research: determines cause and effect by exposing one group to a particular variable, while another is not exposed to the variable

There are three methods scientists use to obtain descriptive research:

observation
case studies
surveys

Each method comes with strengths and weaknesses. Scientists may opt for one method over another depending on the type of information they need and from whom.

Additionally, researchers may also transmit bias to those they observe, resulting in the participants adjusting their behavior to the bias.

For these reasons, the observational method may be more accurate for scientists studying animal behavior, rather than human.

Case studies typically focus on an individual or small group of people and can provide a wealth of information about something very specific in its natural setting.

This precision can pose benefits and risks to case studies.

Participants may be less likely to drop out or refuse to follow up with researchers in this type of research format, which can increase the accuracy of case study findings.

As a descriptive research method, surveys can have similar inaccuracies to observation. Participants may change their answers out of concern or fear for how they could be perceived.

Virtual versus in-person surveys

Descriptive research methods can be crucial for psychological researchers to establish and describe the natural details of a particular phenomenon.

There are three major methods of descriptive research:

observation
case studies
surveys

Each method of descriptive research has risks and benefits, including the possibility of bias, often as a result of participants adjusting their behavior as a consequence of being watched.

53) Descriptive methods in psychology

B as specific forms of understanding or methods of descriptive psychology introspection, self-report, participant observation, empathic listening, identifying, talking like dialogue, biographical method, intuition, interpretation of the inner world of another human, hermeneutics.

Method introspection, or introspection, comes from a fundamental human psyche - its reflexive nature found in direct representation the subject of his own mental states. Introspection is "gazing" into the internal processes of consciousness, phenomena mental life, mental experiences. Just like external objective perception, internal perception occurs through logical processes - distinction, analysis, abstraction, synthesis, generalization. Difficult or impossible submit our own psychological knowledge without method introspection. self-observation revealing their own feelings feelings, thoughts, attitudes, images, ideas, desires, volitional processes etc. However, a special internal work on their comprehension, interpretation, understanding, dissection. Not all people equally capable of this kind of work.

Method self-report directly follows from the method of introspection. self-report is a verbal or written report of results introspection, human description oneself in relative integrity mental manifestations. In this respect self-report becomes available for analysis by others. culturally designed types of self-report are letters, autobiographies, confessions, diaries.

Included observation is specific form of observation. IN difference from objective observation, where the detached observer explores fragments of external behavior other, included observation involves real participation researcher in experiment, group discussions, etc. The researcher speaks as an equal participant in a joint the subjects of the action, shows his experiences, declares his own values and attitudes. In this kind observation of a certain human the problem is studied in its entirety. She is equal affects both the subject and researcher. In psychology, the method included observation is used in practice of psychotherapy.

Empathic listening as a method of humanitarian psychology is based on the ability a person to understand the interlocutor in empathy him - the experience of the researcher of those the same emotional states that the interlocutor experiences, through identification with him. Using this method requires some skill and empathic understanding is penetration into a foreign world, the ability to enter in the field of another person, inside him personal world of meanings and see right Do my understanding.

Identification as a method of understanding the other is is the human ability to think put yourself in the place of another incarnate in another. Unlike emotional empathy (empathy), identification uses intelligent, logical operations: comparison, analysis, reasoning, etc.

Dialogue conversation in contrast to the classical The interview is based on the principles equal and equitable communication, in which the communication partner not perceived as an object of study, and his knowledge is seen only through understanding. In conversation as a dialogue research task is not prevailing, it appears along with correctional, pedagogical and other goals. Humanitarian knowledge is becoming into an active process of dialogic communication and interaction.

Biographical method as a way of knowing a person based on the study of human psychology in the context of its history, through description his biography. Understanding the inner world of man, developed spiritual life carried out through the description past stages of a person's life. The biographical method can be implemented in the form of psychological reconstruction throughout the life path of the historical a figure, an outstanding personality, etc.

Intuition defined as knowledge arising without understanding the ways and conditions of its receipt, because of this, the subject has knowledge as a result of direct discretion”, inner comprehension. Intuitive grasp, understanding the inner world of a person is more developed people who work professionally people (doctors, teachers, psychologists and so on.).

Hermeneutics - a method common to the social sciences, culture, man, - represents art and theory of interpretation various kinds of texts - literary, religious, historical, scientific and etc. An analogue of hermeneutics in the objective psychology is a method of analysis activity products. Exists broad understanding of hermeneutics, including understanding and interpretation any texts.

3.3. Methods of descriptive (humanitarian) psychology

Purpose methods descriptive psychology

Methods descriptions And understanding psychology human

What are ability to understand human in a person? What is the originality methods of humanitarian psychology? What are methods of understanding human psychology ?

Purpose methods descriptive psychology

IN In the previous presentation, we aimed show that the orientation of psychology to natural science paradigm of knowledge leads to the fact that the person in it not seen as a goal

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loe, a as a collection of certain properties, processes, states, elements and structures. The study of man in this approach is to abstract any part and study it as independent and self-worth. For this methods used in psychology research borrowed from arsenals natural sciences, objective methods, and primarily observation and experimentation.

Such approach to man is not quite adequate. Man not only and not so much a natural being, how much the creature is social and spiritual. He lives according to the laws of society, history, morals. Ways and ways of knowing the natural world, developed in natural science, cannot be directly and wholly transferred in the sciences that study man and society, in which he lives.

Humanities sciences (or the humanitarian paradigm in science) arose in the XIX c., i.e. two centuries after the formation natural sciences. In view researchers have already developed examples of science are mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and other sciences. From humanitarian knowledge were required science orientation, considered as a general form scientific knowledge, and developed within it methods of knowledge. That's why the humanities were forced to sharply opposed to the natural sciences. In psychology, this manifested itself in the distinction W. Dilthey "explanatory" and descriptive psychology.

V. Dilthey substantiated a specific subject descriptive (understanding) psychology and proved that such a psychology should develop your own ways and methods knowledge. The subject of descriptive psychology is mental life person in its integrity and connection. Humanitarian psychology reveals structure of mental life as a whole, and does not summarize it from separate parts. “Psychology is necessary and possible,” W. Dilthey wrote, - laying the foundation descriptive and analytical method”, aimed at understanding of coherence and integrity the inner world of a person, giving the basis “to comprehend individual forms of mental life, gender differences, national characters, in general the main types of target human life, as well as types individuality" ⁵⁹ .

⁵⁹ Dilthey B. "Understanding psychology" // Reader on history psychology / Ed. P I Galperin, A N. Zhdan. M., 1980. S.276.

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So way, the assignment of descriptive methods psychology, as opposed to explanatory does not consist in constructing cause-and-effect constructions of the mental, but in understanding and comprehension of the spiritual and spiritual life man in all its diversity expressions and connections. Basic approach to human psychology is not an explanation it in terms of causal dependencies, and understanding of its integrity with subsequent analysis and division according to laws this whole itself. Explanation in natural science humanitarian psychology contrasts understanding.

Methods descriptions and understanding psychology people

Understanding in humanitarian psychology as a scientific approach, as a special method. Understanding is both a process and a result knowledge. Process understanding can unfold into various forms or moments of knowledge, resulting in a certain interpretation of the phenomena of mental life as specific forms of understanding or methods of descriptive psychology perform introspection, self-report, participant observation, empathic listening, identification, conversation how dialogue, biographical method, intuition, interpretation internal world other people, hermeneutics (fig.4).

anticipating description of specific methods of understanding in humanitarian psychology, we note the objective difficulty that exists here: in a systematic form, these methods are still not outlined. In this case, this is one of the first attempts of this kind, because it does not claim to be complete and complete classification method. Distinguishing concepts "description" and "understanding" in context presentation is connected with a fairly obvious the meaning of the term "description" - verbal (symbolic) expression of the understood, known.

Method introspection, or self-observation, comes from the fundamental characteristics of the human psyche reflexive nature, found in close representation to the subject of his own mental states. Introspection there is a "peer" into the inner processes of consciousness, phenomena of mental life, mental experiences. V. Dilthey noted that the basis of psychology is always lies the connection of spiritual life as directly and originally given and this connection can be comprehended internal perception. As well as external objective voice

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acceptance, internal perception comes from using logical processes - discrimination, analysis, abstraction, synthesis, generalization.

Fig. 4. Methods of descriptive psychology

Difficult or it is impossible to imagine our own psychological knowledge without method of self-observation. S.L. Rubinshtein noted that "the data of consciousness are actually always

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are used in the physical sciences in every study outside world" ⁶⁰ . The more important the self-observation data have for psychology as a science of the inner world of man.

High evaluating self-observation and subjective cognition, American psychologist C. Rogers wrote that "one of the important ways of knowing goes through the formation of internal hypotheses that we test by referring to to inner experience", but "this little attention is paid to the type of knowledge, for it is considered not infallible, not leading to widely accepted knowledge. But, from my point of view, this is the main the path of knowledge, this is a deep organic feeling on the basis of which we we form and refine our co- underwear representations and concepts” ⁶¹

self-observation revealing their own feelings feelings, thoughts, attitudes, images, ideas, desires, volitional processes and so on. However, requires a special internal work to comprehend them, interpretation, understanding, dissection. Not all people are equally capable of this kind of work. Differences between people in in this respect are the level of their self-awareness and reflection.

Introspection closely related to the method of external observations. Indications of self-observation relate to the outside world, with the facts of their own behavior, validated by other people's assessments. Recall the previously noted feature mental - internal subjective the world is an objective reality. IN self-observation we find thoughts, images, experiences that connect us with the environment reality. Introspection is not closes us in the inner world of consciousness, but, on the contrary, brings us to the external - natural and social world.

Method self-report directly follows from the method of introspection. Self-report is a verbal or a written report of the results introspection, human description oneself in relative integrity mental manifestations. In this respect self-report becomes available for analysis by others.

culturally formalized types of self-report are letters, autobiographies, confessions, diaries. Important advantages of self-report as a method humanitarian psychology is th, that the self-report presents uniqueness internal mi

⁶⁰ Rubinstein SL Basics general psychology. In 2 vol. M., 1989. V.1 P.52. ⁶¹ History of Foreign Psychology / Ed. P Ya Galperina, A N Zhdan M , 1986. S 204

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ra man in the unity of experience, understanding, relationship, its reflection in the mind of the author. B self-reported person appears on a certain period of his life, often significant enough.

IN psychology notes that self-report errors are common, one of which is the author's tendency to present yourself in front of others as much as possible favorable light. However, this desire in itself interesting from a psychological point of view point of view, as it shows that most appreciated by the author of the self-report in his presentation to others. Most of the letters, autobiographies, diaries, confessions the desire to expose the most intimate experiences and thoughts of their authors, describe internal motives of actions in real life situations. wonderful An example here is "Confession" L.N. Tolstoy.

Included observation represents is a specific form of observation. Unlike objective observation, where the detached observer explores fragments of external behavior other, included observation involves real participation researcher in experiment, group discussions, etc. Researcher speaks as an equal participant in a joint the subjects of the action, shows his experiences, declares his own values and attitudes. In this kind observation of a certain human the problem is studied in its entirety. She is equal affects both the subject and researcher. Actually, in the included observation is not as such hard division into researchers and researched. Each of the participants group work can take a position researcher as relative to another, as well as about yourself.

IN psychology method of included observation applied in the practice of psychotherapy work. In pedagogical practice, the method participant observation can organically be used by the teacher when conducting joint activities with students.

Empathic hearing how method of humanitarian psychology based on the ability of a person to understand the interlocutor in empathy with him – experience researcher of the same emotional states experienced by the interlocutor, through identification with it. empathic hearing substantiated and used in his psychotherapeutic practice K. Rogers.

How way of communicating with the interlocutor and his cognition, empathic listening is certain technician

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behavior research subject (therapist, teacher) and subject-researched (patient, client, student). This close distance between those sitting opposite each other interlocutors, eye contact, complete preoccupation with the interlocutor (“centeredness” on whom), emotional empathy for the content of what is being said etc. Therapist's behavior (teacher) contributes to the establishment psychological contact in a conversation, maximum openness and frankness in communication. Therefore, the use of this method, according to K. Rogers, “requires a certain skill, and empathic understanding lies in penetration at alien world, the ability to enter relevantly into the phenomenological the field of another person, inside his personal world of meanings and see if it's right my understanding” ⁶² .

Identification as the method of understanding the other is a ability man mentally put himself on the place of another, as if to be embodied in friend. B difference from emotional empathy (empathy), identification uses intelligent, logical operations: comparison, analysis, reasoning, etc.

Dialogue conversation in different from the classic interview based on the principles of equal rights and equal position communication, at which partner communication is not perceived as studied object, and its knowledge seen only through understanding. Precise science, - wrote M.M. Bakhtin, - is monologue form knowledge; intelligence contemplates a thing and speaks about it. Him opposes mute thing, but the subject cannot be studied as a thing, cannot become voiceless, knowledge of it can be dialogical” ⁶³ . B dialog active both interlocutors: not only the host conversation has the right and opportunity to ask questions that have the same rights and his partner. In conversation as a dialogue research task is not prevailing, it appears along with correctional, pedagogical and other goals. Humanitarian knowledge is becoming into an active process of dialogic communication and interaction.

Biographical method as way of knowing people founded in the study of human psychology in context of its history, through description his biography. Understanding domestic world people

' ² History foreign psychology M, 1986. С 209

⁶³ Bakhtin M M. Aesthetics verbal creativity M., 1979. C 363.

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century, developed mental life is carried out by describing past stages human life. biographical method can be realized in the form of psychological regconstructions of the whole life path historical figure, outstanding personalities, etc. Advantage of the method lies in the reliability and validity conclusions about psychological characteristics person. However, the method is labor intensive. and cannot be used very widely.

Usage biographical method is associated with using a number of private methods: questionnaires, interviews, tests, autobiographies, eyewitness accounts (relatives, contemporaries), with the study of products activities, etc.

Intuition defined as knowledge arising without understanding the ways and conditions of its receiving; in By virtue of this, the subject has knowledge as the result of "direct discretion", inner insight Describe ways and ways of intuitive comprehension of another human is not possible by the very nature of intuition. However It has been established in psychology that the intuitive discretion, "holistic grasp" situation becomes possible if person has extensive practical experience or cognitive activity relevant area. intuitive grasping, understanding the inner the world of man is more developed in people, professionally working with people (doctors, teachers, psychologists, etc.).

Interpretation other person's inner world based on the subject's use set of internal psychological means, their psychological experience. Understanding someone else's mental life is carried out according to mechanism analogies. "Internal perception, - wrote V. Dilthey, - we we make up for it by understanding others. We we comprehend what is inside them. going on it is through a spiritual process, corresponding to the conclusion analogies” ⁶⁴ . When interpreting the inner world another person uses multiple information about the external behavior of the observable: deeds, actions, facial expressions, gestures, emotional manifestations, etc.

Hermeneutics – method, general sciences about society, culture, human, - represents art and theory of interpretation various types of texts - literary, religious, historical, scientific and other Analogue hermeneutics through lens-

⁶⁴ Dilthey In "Understanding psychology" // Reader on history Psychology / Under the editorship of P Ya Galperin. A N Zhdan M, 1980 P.278.

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Noah Psychology is a method of analysis activity products. Exists broad understanding of hermeneutics, including understanding and interpretation any texts.

"Phenomenon understanding and correct interpretation understood, - wrote H.-G. Gadamer, - is not only special methodological the problem of the sciences of the spirit. For a long time There was also a theological legal hermeneutics, which is not wore so much scientific and theoretical character, how much corresponded and promoted action teach about-educated judges or priest" ⁶⁵ . Moreover, as a "text" act as the totality of human experience in general.

From these positions it is legitimate to talk about pedagogical or psychological hermeneutics as art and theory to interpret and understand pedagogical or psychological experience. This experience can be represented both in various kinds of texts and in other products of material and spiritual culture. In psychology, this can be stories, autobiographies, drawings, actions, behavior, etc.

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