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The 23 Best Personality Tests In Ranking Order (2022 Update)

In this ranked list we are going to go over all of the most respected and scientifically validated personality tests out there. You'll find a range of paid and free personality tests. The best of these personality tests are included when you purchase a WorkStyle profile for you or your team - saving you a lot of money - Click here to learn more about WorkStyle profiles

Here's a short history of personality tests before we get to the list...

The history of personality testing...

In around the year 460BC, the Hippocrates suggested that humans had a 'persona' - a personality that was comprised of four distinct temperaments. He suggested that whichever fluid was more dominant in a person determined their 'humour', and thus their different personality.

In 1879, Withelm Wundt became, not only the 'Father of Psychology', but became the first person to draw a clear distinction between the human body and a human personality theory.

The rise of the psychodynamic approach in the late 1800's lead to a drastic change in the way that we viewed and understood personality in social situations with a group of people.

The founder of the Psychodynamic approach, Sigmund Freud, suggested that our personality was a lot more complexed than originally suggested and that our behavior, and personality, is driven by our innate drives and needs.

Carl Jung, proposed that there are only four human personality preferences: sensing, intuition, thinking and feeling, and that these influence our personality. The 1900's lead to an increased interest in personality testing, assessments, and typing, especially in the workplace. Consequently, gaining more understanding of one's personality helped people build their emotional intelligence, find the career that best fit them, improve productivity, enhance relationships, and so on.

Woolworth personal data sheet was the first modern personality test to be invented; it was used by the united states American army to detect which recruits would be susceptible to shell shock.

Since the 1900's personality testing, personality assessments, and theories of human personality has skyrocketed. People are now very familiar with personality quizzes such as the Myers-Briggs personality test, 16 personalities, big five and various IQ tests.

Why Should I Take Multiple Personality Tests?

Most of us have probably signed up for a movie and TV streaming platform like Netflix, Amazon Prime, or Disney+. But have you ever felt like there should be one service that collates all those shows into one platform at one price? Personality tests feel the same way at times too. We take one personality test and it tells us a thing or two about us, but might miss out on one key element or another. So what we do is take another personality test for individual or team analysis.

Let’s take a look at one example: Let’s imagine one organization named XYZ corporation wants to understand its team’s personality profiles to improve workplace dynamics. So they take the Big Five Personality test and pay over $135 for it. But the Big Five Personality traits is too broad or descriptive. So then a company proceeds to take a test like Myers-Briggs to cover that base. But then Myers-Briggs might be lackluster in some areas too.

Benefits for individuals

By taking several personality tests, individual get a more comprehensive assessment and understanding of how they work, think, and act. Each personality test has its own strong points when it comes to assessing how we’re wired. So access to that kind of data will bring you more self-awareness and allows you to maximize your core competencies and traits.

Benefits for teams

The same is true for collective teams as well. We better understand how our team can work together to achieve goals together by looking at each other’s personalities and traits. By accessing multiple tests, everyone understands how each team member is wired and whom they can approach to help them in areas where they might lack certain natural gifting.

Now without further ado. ..

The Most Popular Personality Tests In Ranking Order

1. Truity

Website: Truity.com

Established in 2012, Truity has developed a library of scientifically validated personality tests to help people understand themselves and those around them.

Through their website, users can take a range of tests including;

Over 2 million tests are taken on their website every single month. Their blog is also a fascinating read for those interested in the science of personality testing. Their founder Molly Owens regularly appears in the media to share her insights on how personality tests can be of use in the workplace.

learn more at: Truity.com

2. HIGH5 Test

Website: High5test.com

HIGH5 is the free strengths test that helps people find out what they are naturally good at. If you have ever heard about the StrengthsFinder, this is it.

It is based on the principles of positive psychology, an emerging scientific field studying what makes humans flourish. The core premise is that fixing one's weaknesses can help to avoid failure, but to achieve success, happiness, and fulfillment - one needs to maximize their strengths. Therefore, HIGH5 is designed to identify what's strong in people rather than what's weak.

Unlike other assessments, HIGH5 does not assign you to a specific group or type. Instead, it identifies your unique strengths sequence, which is as unique as 1 in 1.86 million. Due to its action orientation and development focus, the assessment is used by professionals in 95% of Fortune 500. It is frequently applied in personal development, team building, coaching, and leadership development.

After answering 100 questions in 20 minutes, you will identify your HIGH5 or the top 5 most developed strengths free of charge.

Learn more at: High5test.com

3. DiSC

Website: DiscProfile.com

Introduced by Walter Clark in 1940, the DiSC personality profile was designed to measure dominance, influence, steadiness, and conscientiousness.

The questionnaire was created predominantly for organizational use and can be used for leadership and executive development, management training, sales training, conflict management, team building, customer services, communication and job coaching.

The DiSC assessment contains 28 questions, where the participant picks a word that is most like them, and a word that is least like them for each question. The online personality test is designed to be easy to use, easy to administer and to be delivered by anyone.

Prices for this assessment range depending on the type of career tests, the size and type of team it is being applied to and the number of people.

For the most popular and applicable test, the ‘everything DiSC Workplace Profile', prices start at $64.50 each (per employee).

For more information, visit the DiSC website. This online test is also included in a WorkStyle profile.

4. 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire

Website: OpenPsychometrics. org

The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) was first published by Cattle, Tatsuoka, and Eber in 1949, however, since then there have been more additions. This questionnaire is based on Allports 4000 proposed personality traits, which Cattle Narrowed down to 171, and then later down to 16, to design the tool.

The questionnaire is designed to measure normal behaviors and can bed used for career development, employees selection, marital help, and counseling; but it does have some clinical reference.

It measures: warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule-consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance, perfectionism, tension

The questionnaire is designed to be used by people 16 or older.

It takes 30-35 minutes to complete by paper and pencil version, and 30 minutes to complete using a computer/online version.

5. HEXACO Model of Personality Structure Personality Inventory

Website: Hexaco. org

The HEXACO model was constructed in the year 2000 to assess some of the personality dimensions, and theoretical interpretations, that had been outlined in earlier studies.

The model measures six major personality dimensions, namely: Honesty-Humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience.

The inventory is comprised of 200 questions for the full-length assessment or 100 questions for the half-length assessment.

The HEXACO 60 is also available for when there is little time. For more information on accessibility and pricing, visit the HEXACO website.

6. Revised NEO Personality Inventory

Website: Acer.edu.au

Developed by Costa and McCrae in the 1970's and later finalized in 2005, the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) was designed to measure and test the Big-5 personality traits that are outlined in the five-factor model - namely: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

The inventory also has six subcategories of each of the five traits, for instance, neuroticism is comprised of anxiety, hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, and vulnerability to stress.

Whereas extraversion is comprised of the subcategories of warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking and positive emotion.

The inventory was originally designed for adults but has shown to be useful for younger ages.

The inventory can be used for counsellors, psychiatrists, psychologists, educators, and doctors, it has also been increasingly used in organizations over the years.

The inventory consists of 240 items, which takes 30-40 minutes to complete.

Pricing varies depending on what version you buy and how you administer it. For more information on the product, how to administer it and how to buy it, visit this website.

7. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Website: Myersbriggs.org

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was introduced by Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, in the 1940s.

The Myers-Briggs test is based upon an earlier theory that was introduced by Carl Jung - a theory that humans experience the world using four psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling and thinking. These functions affect many things, such as one's work style, mode of rejuvenation, strengths, weakness and so on. Later Isabel Myers and Katharine Briggs would format those four psychological functions into sixteen personality types.

The MBTI measures whether an individual is extroverted or introverted, whether they have a sensing preference or an intuitive preference when it comes to processing information, whether they prefer to make decisions by thinking or feeling and whether they have a judging or perceiving preference about how they do things.

The results from the questionnaire then place the person onto one of 16 personalities, each has their own strengths and weaknesses, such as the ENJF personality type.

The MBTI can be used by test takers for individual development, employee development, team development, team productivity and to increase team effectiveness.

The questionnaire consists of 93 forced-choice questions, where the participant matches a word with a statement.

The pricing of this tool will vary depending on what type of Myer-briggs type indicator you buy and where you purchase it from.

For more information on the MBTI, visit their website. This test is also included when you purchase a WorkStyle profile.

8. Eysenck Personality Inventory

Website: Similarminds.com

The Eysenck Personality Inventory measures personality on two independent dimensions: extroversion versus introversion and neuroticism versus stability.

The questionnaire generates three scores, the 'E' score which indicates how extroverted you are, an 'N' score which measures how neurotic you are, and a 'lie' score, which measures how much you have lied on the questionnaire to be socially desirable.

The full questionnaire consists of 100 yes/no questions and takes 20-35 minutes to complete.

There is also a shorted questionnaire that consists of 57 yes/no questions, that takes only 10-25 minutes to complete.

The pricing of the questionnaire varies depending on the scoring system you use and whether it is administered online.

You can access the questionnaire and scoring options here.

9. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire

Website: SimilarMinds.com

Not to be confused with the Eysenck Personality Inventory, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire was later introduced by Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck to measure personality across three dimensions of temperament: extroversion versus introversion, neuroticism versus stability and psychoticism versus socialization.

The questionnaire consists of 100 yes/no questions, or the short scale version consists of 48 yes/no questions.

This questionnaire isn't a particularly well know personality test so versions, and information on the questionnaire, are hard to find, however, there are some online versions available here.

10. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

Website: PearsonClinical. com

Introduced by Hathaway and McKinley in 1939, the Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI) can be used to assess adult personality and psychopathology across 10 scales: hysteria, depression, paranoia, hypochondriasis, psychopathic deviate, masculinity/femininity, psychastenia, schizophrenia, hypomania, and social introversion.

The inventory does have a high clinical reference and is often used to diagnose and assist treatment plans for mental illnesses.

However, it can also be used in occupational settings to screen candidate - especially to measure the psychological stability of those in high-risk professions, such as the police force, pilots or the army.

The MMPI has been changed and revised over the years, but the most recent version, the MMPI-2, contains 567 true-false questions and takes between a 60 to 90 minutes to complete.

There is a shorter version, the MMPI-2-RF, which contains 338 questions and takes around 30-50 minutes to complete. -More detailed information can be found here.

11. The Birkman Method

Website: Birkman.com

Introduced by Roger Birkman, the Birkman method is an online assessment that measures personality, social perception and occupational interests.

The assessment is designed to provide insight into what specifically drives a person's behaviors in an occupational setting and social context.

The questionnaire has 32 scales altogether, 10 that describe occupational preferences, 11 that describe effective behaviors and 11 that describe interpersonal behaviours and environmental expectations.

The method can be used to assess personality in any setting, and is often used in organisational settings for leadership development, team building, career exploration, talent selection and to enhance sales and negotiation.

The assessment consists of 298 questions, 250 of which are true-false questions and 48 of which are multiple-choice. This personality assessment takes around 30 minutes to complete online. Pricing not directly available, visit their website for more information.

12. Values and Motives Inventory

Website: PsyTech.com

The Values and Motives Inventory is designed to identify what drives and energises a person and where they are most likely to gain satisfaction from work.

The inventory measures interpersonal, intrinsic and extrinsic values as well as summarising possible motivating and demotivating factors to an individual at work.

The inventory takes around 20-minutes to complete and can be used for personal growth, development and team building , but it is not recommended for selection.

It can also be used for counselling, coaching and vocational guidance. Pricing is not available online, but you can view a sample report here.

13. Motives, Values and Preference Inventory

Website: HoganAssessments.com

Introduced by Hogan and Hogan, the Motive, Values and Preferences Inventory (MPVI) evaluates a persons core goals, values, drivers and interests that determine what they strive to attain.

The results from this inventory can, in return, predict job success and satisfaction.

The MPVI assesses personality on 10 scales: Recognition, Power, Hedonism, Altruisticism, Affiliation, Tradition, Security, Commerce, Aesthetics and Science.

The MPVI isn't designed to be invasive or intrusive, making it excellent for organisational use.

The MPVI can be used for leadership, to identify a persons fit to the organisational culture and to help create long-term strategies for career development.

The inventory takes 15 to 20 minutes to complete and can be administered online, or be completed by pen and paper. Pricing is not available online, but it is most likely expensive.

For more information, visit their website.

14. Hogan Personality Inventory

Website: HoganAssessments.com

Also introduced by Hogan and Hogan in the 1980's, the Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) is based on the five-factor model and the socio-analytic theory.

The HPI measures personality across key behavioural tendencies: adjustment, ambition, sociability, interpersonal sensitivity, prudence, inquisitiveness and learning approach.

It also has six occupational scale which measure: service orientation, stress tolerance, reliability, clerical potential and sales potential.

Designed to not be invasive or intrusive and to have a focus towards occupational interest and use, the HPI is handy to businesses and can be used for staff selection, personal development, staff retention and leadership.

The HPI contains 206 questions and takes 15 to 20 minutes to complete. Pricing is not directly available, but more information on how to access and administer the inventory can be found here.

15. Hogan Development Survey

Website: HoganAssessments.com

This psychometric measure was also introduced by Hogan and Hogan in 1994.

The survey is designed to measure dark personality in an occupational setting across 11 traits: excitable, skeptical, cautious, reserved, leisurely, bold, mischievous, colourful, imaginative, diligent and dutiful.

The traits measured are all qualities believed to emerge in employees at times of strain and are traits that can disrupt employee relationships, damage the companies reputation and derail peoples chances of success.

The questionnaire is designed to have no clinical reference or to diagnose any mental illnesses and is therefore incredibly valuable to organisations.

The HDS can be used to aid employee career development, recognise employee weaknesses and mitigate there before it affects their performance.

Limited information on the length of the assessment and the pricing is available online, but for more detail visit the Hogan website.

16. Californian Psychological Inventory

Website: Psychometrics.com

Introduced by Harrison Gough in 1956, the Californian Psychological Inventory is designed to describe 'everyday behaviour' across 18-scales.

The inventory can be used for employee selection, individual development, succession planning, employee selection, employee retention, executive coaching and can outline performance improvements and motivation of individuals.

The questionnaire can be used by anyone over the age of 13. The inventory can be administer online, or by pen and paper and contains 434 true-false questions, taking around 45-60 minutes to complete.

There are lots of different options on types of ways to use the Californian Psychological Inventory , all with varying prices - for more information, visit here.

17. Personality Assessment Inventory

Website: SigmaAssessmentSystems.com

The Personality Assessment Inventory was introduced by Leslie Morey in 1991 to assess personality and psychopathology across four scales:

(1) clinical scales, which measures neurotic, psychotic and problematic behavioural tendencies;

(2) treatment consideration scales, which measures aggression, suicidal ideation, nonsupport, stress and treatment rejection;

(3) interpersonal scales, which provides an assessment of whether someone is warmly affiliative versus coldly rejecting, or dominant versus submissive; and

(4) validity scales, which are there to ensure the test is valid.

The inventory consists of 344 items that are measured on a four point scale from 'not true at all' 'slightly true' 'mainly true' 'false'.

The inventory takes an hour or less to complete and can be completed online for £799, or by pen and paper for £399 - it is not clear online how many tests this gives you for this price, but for more information look here.

18. Personality and Preference Inventory

Website: Psionline.com

Designed by Max Kostick in the early 1960's, the Personality and Preference Inventory is designed to comprehensively cover aspects of personality that are relevant to the workplace and is designed to elicit behaviours and preferences that are appropriate to vacant positions in the workplace.

The inventory has ten 'role scales', which measures our perception of our behaviour in a work situation; and ten 'needs scales', which measure an individuals preference for behaving in a particular way.

The inventory is designed to be simple to administer, to avoid clinical terminology and interpretation and to be used by non-psychologists, making it great for personal use, or for organisational use.

The inventory consists of 180 items and take approximately 15-minutes to complete.

There is no pricing or direct link to the inventory online, but more information is available here about the Personality and Preference Inventory.

19. Keirsey Temperament Sorter

Website: Verywellmind.com

David Keirsey expanded on the temperament theory that was originally introduced by Hippocrates (outlined in the introduction to this blog).

The questionnaire measures personality across four temperaments: artisan, guardian, idealist and rational.

Keirsey then divided these four temperaments intro two categories (roles), each with two types (role variants) - these 16 personality types correlate with the 16 personality types that are outlined in the Myers-Briggs Personality Type inventory.

The test is very popular in the US and have even been used by the Bank of America and the US air force.

There is little information on the nature, length or pricing of the questionnaire online.

20. True Colours

Website: My-personality-test

Introduced by Don Lowry in 1978, the True Colours test was designed to measure four basic learning styles: independent thinkers, pragmatic planners, action-oriented, people-oriented.

Each of the learning styles represents a colour (hence the name), and each person can be a unique blend of all of four colours.

The results from this assessment can be used to help mitigate potential conflict between individuals by understanding each others characteristics.

Little information is available online but a quick test can be taken for free to get a rough idea of what your true colours may be.

21. Caliper Profile

Website: Caliper.com.au

The Caliper profile is an employee and applicant assessment instrument that measures an individuals job performance potential and can find out which person is best suited for the job based on their intrinsic motivation.

The results from these profiles are often used for hiring, employee development, team improvement, talent alignment, succession planing, employee engagement and to increase productivity.

The Caliper Profile consists of 180 multiple choice questions and can sometimes take as long as 2 hours to complete.

22. Rorschach Inkblot Test

Website: TheInkBlot.com

Invented by Hermann Rorschach in the 1960s, the inkblot test is perhaps one of the most unique and 'quirky' personality tests out there.

Typically done in person, the inkblot test is an assessment where an examiner presents the participant with an inkblot, and the participant tells the examiner what they see.

The participant perception of the inkblot is then analysed and interpreted by a psychologist using complex algorithms - this is then says things about the participants personality.

The test is designed to deter the psychological state of an individual and can be used on children from the age of 5, all the way to adults.

Traditionally the test is done in person with an examiner, but you can do a free shortened test online.

23. Szondi Test

Website: Learning-Mind. com

Developed by Leopold Szondi in 1935, the Szondi test is based on the systematic drive theory and the dimensional model of personality.

During the test, participants are shown a series of facial photographs which represent people who have been classified as homosexual, sadist, epileptic, hysteric, catatonic, paranoid, depressive and a maniac.

The participants then pick the most appealing and most repulsive pictures, and it is believe that the one deemed most 'repulsive' displays something about our personality as we have formed an aversion, or become repressed to that psychological state.

This traditional test is not really used that much anymore, but you can still complete some free versions online such as this one.

Frequently asked questions:

Can I use these tests in the workplace?

Yes.

In recent years there has been an increase in the use of personality testing in the workplace and there is a growing amount of research to support its use.

Studies have found that employees who fit well in an organization are more satisfied and more likely to stay within the organization - and whats the most effective way to ensure an employee fits into an organization?

You got it, personality testing!

Richard Branson also once quoted that 'company knowledge and job-specific skills can be learned, but you can't train a personality', so in order to get the most effective employees for your team you could incorporate personality testing at some point.

For personality tools, specifically designed to measure personality in the workplace, check out this post I wrote a few months ago.

However, there are dangers of using personality testing in the workplace, especially for hiring. For more insight into the potential problems of using personality testing in the workplace, give this article a read.

These seem old, are there modern day alternatives?

Granted, some of these tests are fairly old and perhaps slightly outdated, such as the inkblot testing.

However, the tests such as the Myers Briggs Type Indicator, DiSC and the assessments introduced by Hogan and Hogan are pretty modern and have been shown to have good reliability and validity in recent years.

However, if you really do want to take a step into the modern day and explore new alternatives, there has been an increase in online tools that combine many personality tests in a fun and insightful way.

Many of these tests are aimed at organizations, but some could be used for personal use.

Can I use these on my children to predict their success at school?

There are studies to suggest that a child's personality will predict school success.

For example, studies have suggested that children who are highly conscientious will be more successful in school due to their ability to be organized, meet deadlines, comply with rules and work hard.

There is also research to suggest that the personality traits we display can influence our career choice and success.

However, as with almost all things in psychology, there is a huge debate as to whether anything humans do is due to nature or nurture - even our personality, is it influenced by our environment or our genetics?

So, it is possible, that when wondering about your child's school and future life success, their personality will not be the only influencing factor, their success can be greatly influenced by how you, their parent, raise them.

Will knowing the results of my personality tests benefit me in life?

Yes, in many ways knowing and understanding your personality can benefit you in life.

Firstly, understanding your personality will help you at work as it can help you decide what career path to chose, how to develop this career and what sort jobs to apply for based on your personality (and how to behave in these interviews).

Understanding your own, unique, personality will also aid you in personal development - you can understand how you best interact with others, how you need to relax, what motivates you and how you handle stress or pressure.

You are the only person in the world with your personality; you should really invest in learning to understand it.

However, it is important to remember that personality testing does force people into categories or scales; so, although understanding your personality in psychological terminology is great, do be mindful that it may not always be completely accurate.

What do I do if I don't get the result I wanted?

Then you are not who you want to be, and there's nothing wrong with that either.

Learn to understand your own strengths and weakness and learn how you can use these to your advantage.

Say, if you so desperately wanted to be an extrovert so you could be 'popular' or accepted by others, but it turns out that you're actually massively introverted, then you must learn to understand what your needs and wants actually are to be satisfied.

You will most likely not want to be surrounded by people, you will prefer solo work and you will prefer to unwind by being alone - and there's nothing wrong with that either, both extroverts and introverts can be popular, successful and satisfied.

Conclusion

That wraps up 2021 edition of the ranked list of best personality tests.

I hope you find the test you were looking for ;)

Got a preferred test that we haven't included?

Pop it into the comments below.

Frequently Performed Psychological Tests - Clinical Methods

Definition

A psychologic test is a set of stimuli administered to an individual or a group under standard conditions to obtain a sample of behavior for assessment. There are basically two kinds of tests, objective and projective. The objective test requires the respondent to make a particular response to a structured set of instructions (e.g., true/false, yes/no, or the correct answer). The projective test is given in an ambiguous context in order to afford the respondent an opportunity to impose his or her own interpretation in answering.

Technique

Psychologic tests are rarely given in isolation but as a part of a battery. This is because any one test cannot sufficiently answer the complex questions usually asked in the clinical situation. Most diagnostic questions require the assessment of personality, intelligence, and perhaps even the presence of organic involvement. A typical battery of tests includes projective tests to assess personality such as the Rorschach and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), an objective personality test such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), a semistructured test like the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Test, and an intelligence test, usually the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Revised (WAIS-R).

The most important consideration for the physician is when to ask for psychologic assessment. As with medical diagnostic procedures, we are interested in finding answers to diagnostic questions that cannot be obtained through direct observation or interview. In our clinical experience, there are a myriad of circumstances requiring psychologic consultation either to assist in or rule out medical intervention. Some of the more typical situations include compliance, behavioral management, affirmation of clinical findings, the use of supportive drug therapies, and continuity of care issues.

Five case examples are offered to illustrate the above situations.

Mr. S. was a 35-year-old single salesman hospitalized for gastrointestinal problems associated with a previous operation. He had a history of noncompliance with both drugs and nutrition regimens. Severe debilitation would ensue following outpatient treatments, after which he would be hospitalized. This pattern repeated itself several times. Psychologic assessment data were consistent with a pattern of addictive behavior and poor coping mechanisms under stressful conditions. Recommendations included a drug rehabilitation program and stress management techniques.

Dr. L., a 68-year-old retired dentist, had severe behavioral management problems with the nursing staff. He was verbally punitive and intrusive of other patients" privacy. Psychologic assessment revealed an organic brain syndrome indicating greater individual care and a lower expectation of his performance.

A 21-year-old single male, Mr. N., was admitted for hospitalization complaining of severe stomach pains and rectal bleeding. Psychologic testing was administered because the internist could find no evidence of physical pathology. Test battery results described a young man under an inordinate amount of stress due to a huge difference between his intellectual capabilities and the demands of his work place. The recommendation was to find other employment and to work with a counselor to develop more realistic vocational goals.

Ms. C. was a middle-aged housewife complaining of panic attacks of unknown origin. She also said that she was in severe depression because of the death of her daughter 2 years previously. The clinical question was whether she should be given antidepressants or antianxiety agents as an adjunct to psychotherapeutic intervention. Test results were consistent with a state of anxiety as opposed to an affective disorder.

Ms. B. was a 23-year-old single female who was hospitalized following a drug overdose from a suicide attempt. Information was needed to determine how dangerous she was to herself, how restrictive an environment she needed for treatment, and what type of therapy was appropriate. Test results confirmed a compulsive personality with a dramatic flair. Ms. B. needed extensive individual psychotherapy but did not require lengthy hospitalization. Nevertheless, it was essential to link her with outpatient care while she was still motivated to receive care.

Although the above examples are by no means exhaustive, they do point out the variety of commonly occurring circumstances in which psychologic assessment may be useful. It is important when ordering testing to formulate the diagnostic question in as specific a manner as possible. Such requests as "describe personality dynamics" or "rule out psychologic disturbance" are too general to answer in an effective and efficient manner. Do not hesitate to ask exactly what you want to know. The psychologist will inform you if he or she is unable to answer. Use the examples described above to formulate your question: Is this patient depressed? Is this patient psychotic? Why is this patient not conforming to the treatment regimen?

When presenting a patient to a psychologist for evaluation, it is helpful to have demographic data and a detailed history of the client. Also, the description presented of the problems should be in behavioral terms. Saying that a patient appears to be depressed is not as helpful as describing him or her as having a loss of appetite, early morning rising, or slowness of speech. If the patient is a management problem, give a concrete description of what this entails: won"t go to rehabilitation therapy, won"t let a technician draw blood.

Finally, the referring physician may request either a specific test or an abbreviated battery. While some psychologists will go along with this practice, we do not encourage it. Psychologic tests, particularly personality ones, are only as good as the skills of the individual who administers and interprets them. The psychologist must feel confident and competent in the battery that he or she administers. Therefore, the number and choice of tests should be those of the psychologist, just as the medical procedures chosen for a patient are the responsibility of the physician in charge.

Basic Science

The most commonly used personality tests are the Rorschach, TAT, and MMPI. The assumptions underlying projective tests such as the Rorschach and TAT are that the standard set of stimuli are used as a screen to project material that cannot be obtained through a more structured approach. Ambiguous inkblots or pictures reinforce the use of individual expression and reduce resistance. A frequent criticism is the assumption that the individual simply responds to ambiguity with trivia or with what was most recently experienced, such as last night's television fare. The response to this criticism is the notion of psychic determinism. Behavior is a function of choice, not chance. Thus, how a person responds is a reflection of personal motives, fantasies, and needs.

The best-known psychologic assessment tool is the Rorschach, the "inkblot test." It was first published by Hermann Rorschach in 1921 and was introduced to the United States in 1930 by Samuel Beck. The test consists of 10 symmetrical inkblots, half of which are acromatic. It is administered by giving the respondent one card at a time and asking him or her to describe what is seen. The respondent is told that he or she can see one or more things and that there are no right or wrong answers. The tester records the responses verbatim. There is then a second phase of testing called the inquiry. The respondent is again presented with each of the ten cards and asked to note the location of the response and what determines his or her answers.

A large body of research takes to task the reliability and validity of projective techniques in general and the Rorschach in particular. The issue of reliability cannot be approached in a conventional sense with projective techniques. The Rorschach inkblots and the TAT pictures do not lend themselves to split-half reliability because the stimuli are not designed to be equivalent with each other. Test–retest reliability is difficult because many of the variables addressed by the test are affected by time. Interjudge reliability indices using Rorschach summary scores have been reported to be favorable, and Exner (1978), using his own scoring system, has reported test–retest reliability correlations ranging from .50 to .90 on 17 different variables.

Attempts at measuring the validity of the Rorschach also suffer from problems inherent in the nature of the test. The Rorschach is designed to assess highly complex, multidetermined behaviors for which prediction about specific acts is nearly impossible. It also assesses covert needs and fantasy life that may not currently or ever manifest themselves in overt behavior. Concurrent validity is contaminated by the unreliability of psychiatric diagnoses and the fact that individuals with similar diagnoses may indeed behave differently. In response to the criticisms on validity, Korner (1960) has answered that there is no good assessment technique capable of predicting behavior, so why criticize the Rorschach. He goes on to point out that projective techniques are not magic. They describe the personality at work, its adaptations and compromises, and the balance between fantasy and the demands of reality.

The TAT was developed by Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan in 1935. It consists of 30 achromatic picture cards, categorized into those appropriate for boys, girls, men, and women. It is customary to present approximately 10 cards to the respondent, who is then asked to tell a story about what is happening in the picture, what led up to it, and how will it turn out. The respondent is also asked to describe the characters" thoughts and feelings. As with the Rorschach, interjudge reliability is the most applicable test. Correlations have been about .80. The validity of the TAT can be measured when it is defined using specific procedures with a particular population and operationally defined criteria. Studies have examined both construct and concurrent validity. Stories have correlated significantly with behavioral measures of achievement and aggression. A correlation of .74 has been obtained between TAT expressed needs and those needs rated from autobiographies.

The most frequently used objective test for personality is the MMPI. It was published by Hathaway and McKinley in 1943 and revised in 1951. It is designed for ages 16 and over and contains 566 items to be answered yes or no. It may be administered to an individual or group, and the answer sheets can be hand- or machined-scored. The respondent is asked to read each question and decide what is true or false as applied to him or her and then to mark that response on the answer sheet. The test has four validity scales and eight clinical scales. The scales were developed empirically by administering an item pool to a large group of normal subjects, and contrasting their responses to those of selected homogeneous criteria groups of psychiatric patients. Those items that discriminate between the groups were used.

Results of the test are coded onto a profile sheet for interpretation. The mean t-score for each scale is 50 with a standard deviation (SD) of 10. The scale is significantly elevated beyond an SD of 2 or t-score of 70. Even though the MMPI is empirically derived, it shares a similar problem with the projective tests in terms of reliability and validity, that is, it is based on psychiatric diagnoses. How valid and reliable were the diagnoses of the patients in each of the criteria groups? The MMPI thoroughly addresses some other aspects of validity. The lie score (L) assesses social desirability. The F score is an internal consistency check, and the K score assesses test-taking attitude along a frankness–defensive continuum.

An interesting hybrid between the projective and objective assessments is the semistructured incomplete-sentence test. While ostensibly a projective technique in which the respondent reflects his or her own wishes or conflicts to complete a sentence stem, it easily lends itself to objective scoring or screening for experimental use. The Rotter Incomplete Sentence Test is one of the more popular of this form of assessment. It contains 40 sentence stems each of which is to be completed by the respondent. The test takes approximately 20 minutes to complete and may be administered to an individual or to a group. It was originally used as a screening device to determine mental disturbance at an army convalescent hospital. Reliability and validity correlations are quite acceptable. The interjudge reliability is about .90, and split-half reliability is .83. As to validity, correlation coefficients with adjustment and maladjustment classifications for women was .64 and for men .77.

The use of intelligence testing in a clinical setting may be puzzling to the reader. In many ways the intelligence test is the foundation for differential diagnosis to the psychologist. The intelligence test measures major mental abilities that may be affected by the presence of an organic disease or injury, thought disorder, or environmental stress. The patterning of the scores on the intelligence test gives the psychologist clues as to the presence, extent, and relative influence of each of the above factors. The most empirically sound intelligence test is the WAIS-R, which was revised in 1981. The WAIS-R contains 11 tests, 6 verbal and 5 nonverbal. It was standardized on a stratified sample of ages ranging from 16 to 74 years, 11 months. The basic score is the intelligence quotient (IQ), a comparison of the individual with the average score of his or her age group. Each of the 11 tests also has its own scale scores, which are conversions of raw scores dependent also on comparison to reference groups. The sum of scale scores are converted to three IQ scores: verbal, performance, and full-scale IQs. Mean IQ is 100 with an SD of 15; thus, two-thirds of all adults have an IQ between 85 and 115. Reliability coefficients are excellent in the mid-90's range. In terms of validity, there is a .50 correlation with school performance and a . 85 correlation with the Stanford–Binet test of intelligence. The WAIS-R takes approximately 90 minutes to administer and requires a competent tester.

A physician who wants to rule out an organic brain syndrome may call upon neuropsychologic testing. This is particularly true when a CT scan is negative in the presence of suspicious symptomatology (early Alheizmer's disease), in assessing the relative importance of organic versus psychologic variables in the behavior of trauma victims, and in differentiating between dementia and depression in the elderly. For cases in which an intense work-up for neurologic deficits is required, the patient should be referred to a specialist for neuropsychologic assessment. Since this procedure can be costly and time-consuming, the physician may want to screen first for the presence of a brain dysfunction. Most psychologists are well trained for this task. We will briefly describe two neuropsychologic tests that are useful for screening purposes. We do not necessarily endorse them as the best available, but only those with which we have familiarity.

The first test is the Aphasia Screening Test adapted by Reitan (1984) from the Halstead/Wepman Aphasia Screening Test. It assesses several areas of dysfunction including dysphonia, dyslexia, spelling and constructional dyspraxia, and dyscalculia. The test uses the sign approach, that is, positive findings have distinct and definite significance, but normal performance cannot rule out organicity. Anyone with a basic grade school education is capable of answering every item correctly. The test is simple to administer and consists of 32 items that do not usually require more than 20 minutes to complete. The second, called the Category Test, is the most powerful in the Halstead/Reitan test battery. It consists of 205 stimuli and is divided into seven subtests. The Category Test assesses central processing, abstraction, and reasoning. The cutoff score is 51 errors. While Reitan recommends the use of a slide presentation with his own design projector and feedback system, DeFillipis and McCampbell (1979) have designed a much simpler method of presentation. Their Booklet Category Test (BCT) is portable, requiring only two loose-leaf notebooks and an answer sheet. They report .91 correlation between the BCT and the Category Test. There are two major criticisms of the Category Test: there is no normative data, and reliability has not been adequately studied. One study did report a test–retest correlation of .93.

Clinical Significance

The Rorschach describes personality structure, offering a multidimensional picture of the individual's current functioning and potential. As Korner (1960) states, the Rorschach shows the personality at work. There are several scoring systems for the Rorschach, most being based on four major categories: location, determinants, content, and the use of populars and originals. The location, or area of the response, yields information about the respondent's ability toward perceptual organization, abstraction, and synthesis. Determinants of the response refer to those qualities that produce it, such as form, shape, and color. They are tied to such personality variables as emotionality, impulsivity versus control, and openness versus constrictiveness. The content of the block reveals the personal meanings, attitudes, and interests of the respondent. Originals and populars are related to the respondent's creativity, reality testing, and conventionality, among other variables.

Whereas the Rorschach presents personality structure and organization, the TAT reflects the content of personality, including needs, pressures, conflicts, values, and interest. There are instances in which the content of a given TAT story is so revealing of the patient's difficulties that it would be reported verbatim in the psychologic report. Certain cards are said to "pull" specific types of themes: Card 1, attitudes toward authority; Card 4, attitudes toward heterosexual relationships; and Card 5, relationships with the mother figure. Also, diagnostic groups tend to have a certain orientation toward the stories. Obsessive–compulsives may be pedantic. Depressives may have short stories with monosyllabic words. Schizophrenics may have disjointed or delusional content.

There are three approaches to interpretation of the MMPI: single scale, statistical, and clinical. Many physicians who order the MMPI are doing so because they are comfortable with the single scale approach. This involves looking at an elevated scale and making assumptions about the patient. As stated, there are eight clinical scales: HS (hypochondriasis), D (depression), HY (hysteria), PD (psychopathic deviant), PA (paranoia), PT (psychothemia), SC (schizophrenia), and MA (hypomania). Although space does not permit a description of all these scales, elevations of each are associated with a diagnostic grouping related to a cluster of symptoms; for example, elevated HS is associated with an immature person with lack of insight who tends to complain about his or her health. Interpretation of single scales must be taken with great caution. The scales were devised to fit with the Kraepelin System of diagnosis, which is outmoded. For instance, there is no longer a diagnostic grouping of psychopathic deviate. Each of the scales has a much different meaning in relation to more modern classifications.

The statistical approach for interpretation involves code types. A code type is a particular correlation of elevated clinical scales (e.g., 2 through 7). A large sample of patients are given the MMPI. They are grouped by similarity in code types. These groupings are then correlated with clinical and demographic data, the notion being that patients with similar MMPI profiles will manifest similar problems. The difficulty with this approach, often called the "cookbook" approach, is that the data do not tend to generalize to other settings.

The third approach to MMPI interpretation is the clinical approach. The expert clinician depends on his or her knowledge of personality dynamics, case history, and current environmental circumstances to formulate hypotheses as to psychologic difficulties of the respondent. The MMPI computer-generated report uses this type of approach. One has to be extremely cautious in relying too heavily on the report because its author has no firsthand knowledge of the respondent. The clinical psychologist administering the MMPI will use the clinical approach but seldom in isolation without other tests, or at least a clinical interview.

The Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank is a screening device. We have found it useful as a way of obtaining content information similar to that of the TAT in patients who were too threatened or too depressed to take on the challenge of making up stories. Rotter has given several suggestions for interpretation in addition to a reliable scoring system. The adjusted person tends to produce stems that are more neutral and flippant. The statements tend to be short, concise, and humorous. The maladjusted individual tends to write longer sentences that are complicated and emotionally charged. A frequent theme is that nobody understands them.

It is not unusual for physicians to question the use of intelligence testing on their patients. The common assumption is that the test is not relevant to differential diagnosis. Contrary to this assumption, the intelligence test is an essential part of any test battery. First, the general level of intelligence will determine how much the patient is capable of understanding and therefore cooperating in his treatment. In other words, how concrete or simplified need the physician be in his or her instructions? Second, the intelligence test is a broad-based screening for organicity. The Verbal Scale IQ has been related to left hemisphere functioning and Performance Scale to right hemisphere. A significant difference of approximately 15 points between these two IQs requires more intense assessment. A dramatic difference between a given subscale mean and the mean for that scale may also be cause for concern. A third important use of the results of the intelligence test is its relationship to aspects of personality functioning. As an example, current state of anxiety can be related to subscale scores on digit span and picture completion. Loose association on the similarity or comprehension subtest may be associated with a psychotic process.

In the course of ordering psychologic consultation, if there is any question of the presence of brain dysfunction, the physician may want to order screening in the form of the Category Test and Aphasia Screening Test. The Category Test is the most powerful of the Halstead/Reitan battery. It is essentially a processing test assessing abstraction and reasoning. The Category Test measures level of performance and offers no information concerning localization. Further differentiation in terms of severity, location, or specificity requires more intense evaluation. A quick screening for localization would be the Aphasia Screening Test. It assesses both left and right hemisphere functioning with respect to language ability. If the respondent cannot copy correctly, we might suspect a right hemisphere lesion. On the other hand, if he or she cannot name an object, we might think about a left hemisphere lesion. In the use of this test there will be many false negatives but few false positives.

The physician usually receives the results of psychologic assessments in the form of a psychologic report. There are a variety of formats, so we will describe a typical one. The report will usually be about 2 to 3 typed pages, long enough to do the raw data justice but not so long as to impinge upon the valuable time of the physician. The first section will be a description of the presentation of the respondent and his or her test-taking behavior. The next section will describe the respondent's intellectual functioning, strengths and weaknesses, and the presence of organic symptoms. The third section is an overview of the respondent's current emotional and social functioning that may include samples of actual test responses as examples. In a final section, the psychologist summarizes the findings and offers recommendations. Interpretation of findings in psychologic test batteries largely depends on the clinical acumen of the psychologist. The organization and synthesis of test data require much skill and knowledge of personality dynamics. Each of the tests has a unique contribution to the overall clinical picture, but none can stand by itself. Thus, the psychologist must determine what is relevant, what is internally consistent, and what is central or irrelevant to diagnosis and intervention.

References

  1. DeFilippis NA, McCampbell E. The manual for the Booklet Category Test. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, 1979.

  2. Exner JE. The Rorschach: a comprehensive system. Vol. 2. New York: Wiley, 1978.

  3. *Freeman FS. Theory and practice of psychological testing. New York: Holt, Rineholt & Winston, 1962.

  4. Goldfried MR, Stricker G, Winer LB. Rorschach handbook of clinical and research applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971.

  5. Harrison R. Thematic Apperception Test. In: Wolman B, ed. Handbook of clinical psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965;562–620.

  6. *Hathaway SR, McKinley JC. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory: users guide for the Minnesota report. University of Minnesota, 1982.

  7. *Jarvis PE, Barth JT. Halstead-Reitan Test Battery: an interpretative guide. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, 1984.

  8. *Korner AF. Theoretical considerations concerning the scope and limitations of projective techniques. In: Murstin BI, ed. Handbook of projective techniques. New York: Basic Books, 1960;23–24.

  9. MacInnes WE, Forch JR, Golden CJ. A cross-validation of a booklet form of the Category Test. Clin Neuropsychol. 1981;3:3–5.

  10. Mauger PA. Predicting response to treatment using the MMPI. In: Butcher J, Dahlstrom G, Gynther M, Schofield W, eds. Clinical notes on the MMPI. Nutley, NJ: Hoffman-LaRoche, 1980.

  11. Reitan RM. Aphasia and sensory-perceptual deficits in adults. Tucson: Reitan Neuropsychology Laboratories, 1984.

  12. Rotter JB, Fafferty JE, Schachtitz E. Validating the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Test for college screening. In: Murstein BI, ed. Handbook of projective techniques. New York: Basic Books, 1960;859–72.

  13. *Schneidman ES. Projective techniques. In: Wolman BB, ed. Handbook of clinical psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965;498–521.

  14. Wechsler D. The WAIS-R manual. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981.

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Category: Education and Pedagogy

A psychology teacher is a teacher, a specialist in training students in academic disciplines in the field of psychology. In general, psychology is divided into several highly specialized areas: clinical (medical), pedagogical, personal, political, scientific, religious and others. The teacher explains to the students the tasks and methodology of the subject, gives knowledge on the basic patterns and motivational sources of the human psyche, explains the methods of getting rid of people from psychological trauma and problems. The academic discipline is closely intertwined with the medical branch of psychiatry, but still has qualitative differences in the tools, tasks and objects of study.

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On the profession

9000 per month

Professional: 70000 ⃏ per month

* - information on salaries is given approximately based on vacancies on profiling sites. Salary in a particular region or company may differ from those given. Your income is greatly influenced by how you can apply yourself in the chosen field of activity. Income is not always limited only by the fact that you are offered vacancies in the labor market.

Demand for the profession

Modern psychology is a multifaceted and multitasking field of knowledge. Psychologists help people deal with personal problems, overcome the consequences of psychological trauma, cope with professional, age, social deformations of the personality. In modern society, the tasks of a psychologist are very many. Therefore, systematic and mass training of specialists in this field is being carried out. Accordingly, the need for psychology teachers is high. There are many public and commercial universities, community centers and training courses that train psychologists. The demand for the profession is quite high. There are no problems with employment. There is an opportunity to apply their knowledge and competencies as a practicing psychologist. There are even more opportunities to realize your professional potential here.

Who is suitable for the profession

Successful work as a teacher of psychology requires the following personal qualities:

  • Interest in psychology, medicine, philosophy, culture;
  • Teaching ability;
  • Ability to conduct classes, speak to an educational audience;
  • Organizational abilities, the ability to organize and motivate the educational team;
  • A broad outlook, the ability to present educational material in an interesting and exciting way.

Career

Psychology as a separate subject is taught mainly in medical universities. In humanitarian and technical universities, psychology is present as an auxiliary discipline focused on the comprehensive study of basic academic subjects: legal, scientific, economic, military, sports psychology, etc. A psychology teacher who successfully performs his functions may occupy any leadership positions in an educational institution. In general, the profession does not imply significant career growth. Professional success for a psychology teacher is the preparation of qualified, competent specialists, gaining authority and recognition in the teaching and student environment.

Responsibilities

Professional duties of a psychology teacher include: