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Polyamory: What Does It Mean?

Written by WebMD Editorial Contributors

In this Article

  • What is the Difference Between Polyamory and Swinging?
  • Myths and Misconceptions About Polyamory
  • How Polyamory Works in Relationships
  • How to Explore Polyamory
  • Helping Your Loved Ones to Understand Polyamory

Polyamorous people have multiple loving, intentional, and intimate relationships at the same time. Polyamory is a type of open or non-monogamous relationship that follows certain guidelines. 

Polyamory specifically refers to people who have multiple romantic relationships at the same time. It does not mean any type of open relationship that may include more casual sexual partners. In many polyamorous relationships, each partner is aware of the other ones. Partners may also have relationships or friendships with each other.

There are a few different types of polyamory:

  • Solo polyamory includes people who don't have primary partnerships but date multiple people. They remain mostly independent in their personal lives.
  • Polyfidelity refers to a group of three or more people who have a committed relationship with each other and do not date outside of the group. 
  • Hierarchical polyamory means people who have primary partnerships to which they devote the most time and attention, and secondary and tertiary partnerships that receive less time and attention. The primary partner may have more power over important decisions.
  • Non-hierarchical polyamory refers to people who don’t have a hierarchy of partners. It is also called egalitarian polyamory or relationship anarchy. Each partner may receive equal time and attention. They may also have equal input on important life choices.

What is the Difference Between Polyamory and Swinging?

Swingers have multiple sexual partners but may not develop emotional or romantic connections with their partners. Swingers usually attend sex parties and other events to swap partners. They may have recurring sexual partners, but their focus is not on having romantic relationships.

Polyamorous people, on the other hand, focus on fostering romantic relationships. Polyamorists can also be swingers or attend swinger parties. Swingers are sometimes also polyamorous. 

Myths and Misconceptions About Polyamory

Polyamory is Just Cheating

People in polyamorous relationships are open and honest with each other about their other partners. Successful polyamory depends on honesty, integrity, and communication. Polyamory is not about being secretive or hiding your activities with your other romantic partners.

Additionally, people in polyamorous relationships can cheat. In a poly relationship — as it is sometimes called for short — doing something secretive may count as cheating, depending on the relationship agreements. Examples include seeing a new partner and hiding it from someone or violating a previously set boundary.

Polyamorists Are Just Avoidant or Afraid of Commitment

Commitment in polyamory often looks different than it does in monogamous relationships. Couples may not create traditional relationship milestones together, like cohabitation, engagement, or marriage. However, they still have committed relationships and are there for each other. Some people believe that polyamory requires a lot of commitment because of how much dedication to open and honest communication it requires. 

Polyamorous Relationships Don't Have True Intimacy

Some people do find that having multiple partners detracts from the intimacy in their relationships. But, other polyamorous people find that being in intimate relationships with multiple people creates more intimacy due to the vulnerability and communication required. 

Polyamourous People Don't Get Jealous

Many polyamorous people do get jealous. However, the way they deal with jealousy is usually different than the way monogamous people do. They usually view it as an insecurity or fear to work on and overcome, rather than a relationship-ending problem.  

Parents Having Multiple Partners is Damaging for Their Children

More research is needed to determine the full effect of polyamory on children. However, preliminary research shows that some polyamorous families can be good for children. Just as with monogamous parents, some situations may be better or worse for children depending on several factors. 

Polyamorous People Just Want to Have a Lot of Sex

Some polyamorous people do have a lot of sex, but for many, the focus of polyamory is more about building loving, intimate relationships. Most romantic relationships do involve sex, including polyamorous ones.

How Polyamory Works in Relationships

Polyamorous relationships are complex and each one is different. People in polyamorous relationships design their own relationships by setting their desired boundaries and establishing rules that are different from those in monogamous relationships.

One of the most important agreements that polyamorous people have is an agreement about safer sex. This usually refers to a rule about who they will have unprotected sex with and forms of birth control for people who can get pregnant. This is essential to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted infections or unintentional pregnancy in polyamorous relationships. 

How to Explore Polyamory

If you already have a partner, the first step towards establishing a polyamorous relationship is to talk to your partner about it. If you are nervous about bringing it up, you may want to gauge their interest in or knowledge of the topic by:

  • Inviting them to watch a movie with a polyamorous situation
  • Asking them what they think about polyamorous people you both know
  • Asking them their thoughts about a non-monogamous celebrity
  • Sending them an article about polyamory

Bring up the topic in a moment of peace, in a safe space and time. An argument is not the best time to ask about opening up the relationship. If your partner says no or expresses concerns, listen to them.  

Relationship specialists recommend reassuring your partner that you still care about them. Express your reasons for wanting to try polyamory while also assuring them that you are committed to the relationship. 

However, if you already know that you are poly, whether you have a partner or not, it may be best to seek out new partners who are already polyamorous, or at least interested in non-monogamous relationships. 

Helping Your Loved Ones to Understand Polyamory

Coming out as polyamorous should always be your choice. You may choose to come out to personal friends or family members, but not to coworkers or acquaintances. Consider why you would like to come out before you do so. 

Some experts recommend finding out a person's thoughts about polyamory by asking them a few questions before you come out. You can ask them about another alternative lifestyle choice or a movie with polyamory in it to gauge what they may think about polyamory.  

When coming out to children, relationship experts recommend waiting for the child to ask about your relationships. Give honest and age-appropriate information. Present the information in a calm manner to help children feel safe and secure.

Polyamorous Relationships: How It Works

A type of ethical non-monogamy, polyamory involves having romantic relationships with multiple people.

Polyamorous relationships are becoming increasingly common. And yet, many people falsely believe that polyamory never works, or that polyamorous relationships are “doomed” from the start.

In truth, it’s a relationship style that works for many people. As with all relationships, communication and respect is key to making it work.

Polyamory works for some people, while others prefer monogamy. Neither is necessarily superior to the other.

Polyamorous relationships — like monogamous relationships — can be healthy and fulfilling, depending on the circumstances and behaviors of the people in them.

Polyamory is a form of ethical non-monogamy that involves committed relationships between two or more people — typically romantic relationships.

Essentially, being in a polyamorous relationship means that you and your partner have the option of dating other people.

Polyamory is not the same as polygamy. Polygamy involves being married to more than one person at a time. Polyamory doesn’t necessarily involve marriage.

Polyamorous relationships also are not necessarily sexual in nature, although they can be.

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Generally, polyamorous relationships involve having the option to date two or more people at the same time.

Polyamory can look different to different people. There are many “structures” and boundaries you can employ. Each polyamorous person can set their own boundaries based on what they’re comfortable with.

Some of the most common polyamory structures are:

  • Polyfidelity. This is where the partners in a group agree not to have sexual or romantic relationships with people who are not in the group.
  • Triad. This involves three people who are all dating one another, also called a throuple.
  • Quad. Similar to a triad, a quad is a relationship involving four people who are all dating one another.
  • Vee (or “V”). This is where one person is dating two different people, but those two people are not dating one another.

Many polyamorous people don’t have a structured set-up. They simply have multiple romantic relationships, going with the flow as they meet new people.

Polyamorous relationships can be hierarchical or non-hierarchical.

In polyamory, a “hierarchy” means one relationship is prioritized above others. For instance, you might be married and consider that your “primary relationship,” while your other relationships are seen as secondary.

There’s a lot of controversial discourse over whether hierarchical relationships are fair or not. One 2021 research study found that people in non-hierarchical polyamorous relationships are about as satisfied as those in hierarchical polyamorous relationships.

Polyamorous structures often change over time as people’s feelings, relationships, and personal circumstances change. This is why communication is something often emphasized in polyamorous groups.

Talking about your needs, boundaries, and feelings is one step toward maintaining healthy and happy relationships.

As with all relationships, polyamorous relationships have boundaries. If you overstep those boundaries, your partner might consider it cheating, or breaking your relationship agreement.

What does infidelity look like in polyamorous relationships? That depends on the nature of the relationship.

For example, let’s say you and your partner agree not to go on dates with other people without telling one another beforehand. However, your partner starts dating someone without your knowledge. That could be considered a violation of your relationship agreement and a form of infidelity.

As another example, let’s say you’re in a polycule (that is, a group of polyamorous people) and you practice polyfidelity (which means you agree not to have romantic or sexual relationships with people outside the group). But then you start sleeping with someone outside the group. That could be considered an act of infidelity by others in your polycule.

As with all relationships, honesty and communication is key. Overstepping or disregarding boundaries can do some serious damage to your relationship.

Polyamorous relationships can be healthy. Contrary to popular belief, they aren’t all “doomed” — and it’s very possible to have polyamorous relationships that are fulfilling and happy.

As with monogamous relationships, polyamorous relationships can be healthy or unhealthy — happy or unhappy — depending on the behaviors and actions of the people who engage in them.

Many people in polyamorous relationships are satisfied and happy. In fact, a 2018 study looked at people in monogamous relationships and people in non-monogamous relationships. The study found no difference in relationship satisfaction between the two groups.

It does not matter if you’re entering a polyamorous or monogamous relationship, the important thing is to consider your mental health when making a commitment to someone.

Many people find polyamorous relationships to be more enjoyable and easier to manage than monogamous relationships.

However, polyamory can pose some challenges, too. For example:

  • Time constraints. Having multiple relationships can be difficult because each relationship requires time. A “time squeeze” can be quite stressful.
  • Energy constraints. Similarly, each relationship requires energy — emotional, mental, and physical. This can be a challenge, especially if you have difficulties with energy in general.
  • Jealousy. Some polyamorous people don’t experience jealousy, while others do. Being jealous isn’t inherently bad, but you’ll want to learn to express and manage it in a healthy way.

Lastly, discrimination can impact your mental health. Many polyamorous people experience difficulty with the stigma attached to non-monogamy.

Facing a lack of acceptance from your friends, family, and community can be stressful. Research has indicated that many non-monogamous people internalize negative messages about non-monogamy, which can affect their relationships and sense of identity.

Ultimately, it’s up to you to determine whether polyamory is right for you.

Polyamory is not necessarily superior to monogamy — it works for some people and it doesn’t work for others. As we’re all unique individuals with unique needs, there’s no one-size-fits-all when it comes to relationships.

Before you get into a polyamorous relationship, it’s a good idea to take time educating yourself on polyamory and non-monogamy.

While most people are generally familiar with monogamous relationships, it’s quite difficult to find a blueprint for polyamory.

This means that many of the challenges that are unique to polyamory — such as navigating time management or dealing with jealousy when meeting the partner of your partner — can be even more difficult to deal with. Many may feel alone or at a loss when it comes to dealing with these challenges.

There’s a lot of terminology involved in polyamory, too. Words like “metamour” or “compersion” help people describe relationships and experiences that are unique to non-monogamy. This terminology might seem unnecessary, but it’s extremely useful for communicating with your partners.

So, before you get into polyamory, it’s important to do a little research.

Consider starting with books, listening to podcasts, and viewing forums related to non-monogamy. Learning the terms and discussing polyamory is another great way to prepare yourself.

If you’re interested in learning more about polyamory, there are plenty of resources out there. Websites like PolyInfo.org and Loving More contain a lot of information for those who are new to the concept of polyamory.

Some popular books about polyamory include:

  • “Opening Up: A Guide to Creating and Sustaining Open Relationships” by Tristan Taormino
  • “The Ethical Slut: A Practical Guide to Polyamory, Open Relationships & Other Adventures” by Janet W. Hardy and Dossie Easton
  • “Building Open Relationships: Your Hands-On Guide to Swinging, Polyamory, and Beyond!” by Liz Powell
  • “The Polyamory Breakup Book: Causes, Prevention, and Survival” by Kathy Labriola
  • “Polysecure: Attachment, Trauma, and Consensual Nonmonogomy” by Jessica Fern

You might also enjoy listening to podcasts about polyamory, such as Making Polyamory Work and Polyamory Weekly.

Lastly, whether you’re currently in a polyamorous relationship or not, you might benefit from connecting with polyamorous communities (online or offline). Making friends with like-minded people is a great way to learn more about polyamory and find support.

90,000 Are polyamorous marriages next in line for legalization?
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Image copyright Olivia Howitt

You may be surprised to learn that monogamy is not the dominant form of relationship on our planet today. And in Western society there is a significant number of those who prefer to be in a love relationship with several people at the same time. Browser BBC Future tried to learn more about their lifestyle and values.

Franklin Waugh recalls how as a child he heard a fairy tale about a princess who was tormented by a dilemma. Two suitors sought her hand, but she could only choose one of them.

Little Franklin couldn't understand why she couldn't marry both of them.

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And this, as it is now clear, was not just idle curiosity. Until today, he has never been in a relationship with a single partner.

"I've never been in a monogamous relationship," he says. "I went to prom with two girls and lost my virginity in a threesome."

Now he lives in the same house with his regular partner and her other boyfriend. Sometimes the teenage daughter of his beloved visits them. nine0011

In addition, he maintains long-distance relationships with four other girls. With some of them he sees more often, with others - less often.

Franklin and his girls are polyamorous. Their like-minded people prefer to call themselves simply "poly".

To be "poly" means to allow the existence of several love relationships with the consent and approval of all of their participants.

Polyamory is not mentioned in any census questionnaire, but according to official data, this phenomenon is becoming more common. nine0011

Some are even calling for legal recognition of polyamorous rights, following the legalization of same-sex marriage in the UK and the US.

Image copyright Olivia Howitt

Image caption

Today, monogamy and marriage are considered the norm, but this has not always been the case. about them.

But love has always developed according to the same scenario, hasn't it? A man falls in love with a woman, they get married, they have children, and they maintain a harmonious monogamous relationship for the rest of their lives. nine0011

Sorry, romantics, but such a picture of love has never been and still is not universal. For many hunter-gatherers in the distant past, polygamy - that is, a form of marriage in which more than one spouse is allowed - was the norm.

Monogamy began to flourish when our ancestors began to lead a sedentary lifestyle. Probably, the need for it has, among others, economic reasons.

Thanks to her, it was easier for fathers to share valuable property, such as land, among their children. nine0011

In the idealistic Victorian society of the 19th century, the concept of "monogamy" was replaced by the concept of "romantic love".

"The idea that there should be only one sexual partner has been around for a long time," says law professor Hadar Aviram of the Hastings College of Law in San Francisco, USA.

Even today, monogamy is not the dominant form of relationship on our planet. According to cultural studies, polygamy is allowed in 83% of the world's societies.

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And here comes a relatively new relationship model. At least, the public has only recently paid attention to it.

Over the past two decades, sociologists, legal scholars, and the public have become increasingly interested in polyamory. It forced them to take a fresh look at the very nature of romantic relationships. nine0011

The term "polyamory" was invented in the 1960s. and literally translated from Latin means "multiple love."

So it is, but after talking with people who practice polyamory, it becomes clear that this is a very complex phenomenon. There are no strict rules.

Someone like Franklin lives under the same roof with his partners and has relationships on the side. Others combine long-term relationships with fleeting connections.

Some live in large groups, including their partners and partners of their partners. This is called "familial polyamory". nine0011

These are just a few examples. The main thing that unites all these people is openness, understanding, trust and consent of all participants in the relationship.

One can imagine how much effort it takes for them to maintain such a relationship.

That is why polyamory is far from being the path of least resistance. First of all, they have to solve a lot of organizational issues and communicate a lot.

Image copyright Olivia Howitt

Image caption

Some polyamorous people maintain long distance relationships; others live together under the same roof

"Our relationship is much more complicated," says Eve Rickert, one of Franklin's long-distance girlfriends and co-author of their book, More than Two.

Several decades passed before the first scientific work on this subject was published. "She questioned people's core values," says Terry Conley of the University of Michigan.

In order for her research to be published, Terry had to fight the bias in favor of monogamy. According to her, polyamory has clear advantages. nine0011

In a 2014 paper, Conley argues that polyamorous partners have more friends because their social circle is wider. Moreover, they are more likely to maintain friendly relations with former partners.

Monogamous couples, on the other hand, often distance themselves from their friends, especially in the early, more passionate stages of a relationship.

Conley concludes that polyamorous partners understand each other better and are less jealous.

In her new scientific paper, not yet published, she claims that polyamorous partners have higher levels of relationship satisfaction than monogamous couples. nine0011

This is contrary to the findings of an earlier study in 2015, which found satisfaction levels in monogamous and "consensual non-monogamous" relationships were about the same.

Finally, polyamorous relationships do not seem to contribute to the spread of sexually transmitted diseases at all. Rather the opposite.

Image copyright Olivia Howitt

Image caption

Polyamorous relationships tend to be less jealous than regular ones

are more likely to practice safer sex than those who cheat on their partner, allegedly being in a monogamous relationship. nine0011

Summing up all his findings, Conley says that monogamous couples have a lot to learn from those who prefer polyamorous relationships. For example, ways to communicate and resolve conflicts.

"We place too much importance on marriage, but if spouses give each other more freedom, they will have more resources," she says. "Strategies used in a polyamorous relationship can help you improve your marriage. "

Social exclusion

Society's attitude towards polyamory is not always positive. There are many prejudices about polyamorous relationships, and one of the most common is that they are based on sex.

The presence of several partners is often associated with a dissolute lifestyle. Franklin and Eve are very upset about this.

"I've been in relationships for decades," explains Franklin. "For those who really want sex, there are much easier ways to find a partner." nine0011

Eve agrees with him. "Polyamorous relationships are a constant job. It doesn't take as much effort to have casual sex as it takes to maintain five long-term relationships at the same time."

Image copyright, Olivia Howitt

Image caption,

Contrary to popular belief, polyamory is not about justifying casual relationships, but about maintaining long-term relationships.

Polyamorous partners don't need one-night stands. They feel love and emotional attachment and are ready to be there for each other in joy and in sorrow. nine0011

In the course of her research, Conley also discovered less obvious prejudices. "People tend to think that monogamous couples have better relationships and are more committed to each other," she says.

It even seems to some that monogamous individuals are better at performing completely trivial tasks, such as walking dogs, paying taxes on time, and brushing their teeth.

Single people face similar prejudices. From this we can conclude that there is an active "coercion to form pairs" in society. nine0011

According to Conley, monogamy is surrounded by a halo of holiness, and those who deviate from this norm are condemned.

"Even people in non-monogamous relationships find monogamous relationships to be of better quality. They've come to terms with the fact that their relationship model isn't the best, which is sad. "

The problem is that these labels affect not only adults in polyamorous relationships, but also their children.

Maria Pallotta-Ciarolli of Deakin University, Australia, has done extensive research into the lives of children in polyamorous families. She is most concerned with what she called the “deficiency model.” nine0011

This means that outsiders are sure that such a lifestyle of parents negatively affects children, although this is far from being the case.

"Scientific research shows that children who grow up in multi-adult families are truly happy and enjoy it," says Pallotta-Chiarolli. The more adults take care of them, the more support and attention they receive.

Image copyright Olivia Howitt

Image caption

All scientific evidence suggests that children in polyamorous families tend to be happy and socialized, although they may be aware of prejudice in society

"These children are more perceptive and intelligent and open to understanding the diversity and multiple forms of religion and culture. "

“Children see their parents go to work, take care of those who are sick, cook food,” she continues. “They see all aspects of family life, but from the outside it seems to many that polyamory is just orgies, and children suffer from it."

This does not mean that all polyamorous families are perfect - they face the same difficulties as any other family. nine0011

For example, Eve is still living with her husband, but she no longer has romantic feelings for him. She dated another woman for four years.

Franklin divorced his first wife after 18 years of marriage. Breakups can be painful in any relationship, and things get even more difficult when the partners have kids.

One way or another, any prejudice that exists in society can have unpleasant consequences for polyamorous families.

Poor school performance is often explained by the fact that the child is brought up in a family where monogamy is not practiced. Because of this, he strives to be "the poster child of the exemplar," Pallotta-Chiarolli explains. nine0011

These prejudices are unlikely to be eradicated, partly because such families have no legal support. They cannot formalize their relationship and custody of children.

However, Professor Hadar Aviram found that many polyamorous partners are very keen on this. As part of her academic work, she interviewed many polyamorous activists to find out if polyamorous marriages could be legalized.

A 2012 study of 4,000 polyamers found that 76% of respondents would be interested in formal marriage if it were allowed. nine0011

Photo credit, Olivia Howitt

Image caption,

Demand for legalization of polyamorous marriages has risen amid strong support for same-sex marriage, although the LGBT community does not always approve of such comparisons

96% of respondents said that "arranged multilateral marriages between adults “should have the same legal status as marriages between two people. ”

According to Aviram, such a high demand for the legalization of polyamorous marriages could be the result of legal support for same-sex marriages, officially allowed in the UK and the US.

"It encouraged the polyamorous activists." (Although such a comparison is not always welcomed by representatives of the LGBT community, who believe that it can compromise the idea of ​​​​equal marriage).

Many have asked themselves: why are polyamorous families worse?

The truth is that it will be difficult to legalize polyamorous marriages, in part because there are many varieties of polyamorous relationships. "All polyamorous families are different," says Aviram.

On the other hand, she sees no obstacles to the official registration of polyamorous marriages if all partners live under the same roof and do not have relationships on the side.

She even thought about how this could be done. Parental responsibilities and ownership of real estate may be determined by law. In addition, the biological relationship between those who marry and the children they will raise can be taken into account.

Of course, difficulties cannot be avoided, but they are in many ways similar to the obstacles that are encountered in the path of those who want to adopt a child. Relationships on the side can complicate the situation, but there are similar legal solutions for divorce and child custody. nine0011

However, according to Aviram, in practice, the main problem for polyamers today is the lack of legal protection - for example, the absence of laws that prevent discrimination.

For example, under the US Army Code of War, treason is a crime, and those who are legally married cannot practice polyamory openly.

In order to legally protect polyamory, it must first be recognized as a sexual orientation, just like homosexuality. nine0011

If a law recognizing polyamory as an orientation is passed, polyamorous partners will be protected by similar anti-discrimination laws.

Legal researcher Ann Tweedy of Hamline University recently made her case for polyamory as an orientation.

She says that sexual orientation is defined as attraction to members of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes.

Image copyright Olivia Howitt

Image caption,

A legal expert believes that polyamory can be considered a sexual orientation if it is an integral part of a person's personality

However, other sexual preferences that are an integral part of a particular person's personality can be included in this concept.

As Aviram found out, this echoes the views of many poly-activists. "They say it's in their nature. It's a natural way of life for them."

If so, these groups should be protected by law from discrimination, she says. nine0011

However, even polyamers themselves sometimes have doubts about this. In a small 2005 study, Meg-John Barker of the Open University in the UK interviewed 30 people who practiced polyamory.

When asked about self-identification, only half of them answered that polyamory for them is "a clear belonging to a certain type of personality", while the remaining half called it "an ethical alternative to infidelity."

For Eve and Franklin, it's a combination of both. nine0011

Primate promiscuity

The fact that polyamory is chosen in order not to deceive one's partner draws attention to a striking contradiction that characterizes monogamy in Western societies: many cheat.

At the same time, Pallotta-Chiarolli notes a paradoxical fact: the leading media practically recognize intrigues on the side as a social norm. "But when it comes to ethical non-monogamous relationships... it's considered [abnormal]."

In addition, most people are not monogamous in the true sense of the word: they do not live with one partner all their lives. nine0011

One has only to look at the divorce statistics to understand that about a third of us practice the so-called "serial monogamy", that is, change permanent partners over time.

In the animal kingdom, monogamy is a very rare phenomenon, as the BBC Earth columnist found out after carefully researching this issue. Even for seemingly monogamous animals, “extramarital copulations”, that is, betrayals, are often characteristic.

The closest primates to us - chimpanzees, bonobos and even orangutans - are promiscuous. And if we had a common ancestor with a chimpanzee, then we can assume that he did exactly the same. nine0011

In view of this, "the idea that monogamy is 'natural' or 'normal' for humans doesn't stand up to scrutiny," says Barker.

All this indicates that love between people can take many different forms. What is good for one person or society may not be good for another.

Relationships between people can be of the most bizarre and varied nature, and although the legalization of polyamorous marriages may still be far away, if we begin to recognize the differences between us, the attitude towards love in all its many manifestations will certainly begin to change. nine0011

Read the original of this article in English at BBC Future.

Electrically conductive plastics - Glossary of terms | PlastExpert

Conductive plastics

Organic polymers that conduct electricity. Such polymers can be both semiconductors and good conductors (like metals). It is generally accepted that metals conduct electricity well and organic substances are insulators, but this class of materials combines the properties of both. The biggest advantage of electrically conductive polymers is their processability. Electrically conductive polymers are plastics and therefore can combine the mechanical properties of plastics (flexibility, strength, malleability, elasticity, and so on) with high electrical conductivity. Their properties can be fine-tuned using special organic synthesis techniques. nine0011

Correlation of chemical structure and electrical conductivity

In traditional polymers such as polyethylene, the valence electrons are linked by a covalent bond of the sp 3 hybridization type. Such "sigma bonded electrons" have low mobility and do not contribute to the electrical conductivity of the material. The situation is completely different in conjugated (conjugated) materials. Conductive polymers have a continuous chain of sp 2 hybridized carbon cells. One valence electron of each cell is in a pz orbital that is orthogonal to the other three sigma bonds. The electrons in these delocalized orbitals are highly mobile when the material is "doped" by oxidation, which removes some of these delocalized electrons. Thus, the p orbitals form a band, and the electrons within this band become mobile when it is partially empty. In principle, these same materials can be doped with reduction, which adds electrons to the as yet unfilled bands. In practice, most organic conductors are doped with oxidation to form p-type materials. Redox doping of organic conductors is similar to doping of silicon semiconductors, in which a small number of silicon atoms are replaced by atoms with a large number of electrons (for example, phosphorus) or vice versa, with a small number of electrons (for example, boron) to create n-type semiconductors or p-type, respectively. nine0011

While typically "doping" of conductive polymers involves either oxidation or reduction of the material, conductive organic polymers bonded to protic solvents can also be "self-doped".

The most notable difference between conductive polymers and inorganic semiconductors is the carrier mobility, which until recently was significantly lower for conductive polymers than for their inorganic counterparts. This difference is decreasing with the invention of new polymers and the development of new processing technologies. The low mobility of charges is associated with structural disturbances. Indeed, as in inorganic amorphous semiconductors, conductivity in such relatively disordered materials is mainly a function of "mobility gaps", with phonon jumps, polaron tunneling, and so on between fixed states. nine0011

Conjugated polymers in their undoped pristine state are semiconductors or insulators. And this means that the energy gap in them can be > 2 eV, which is too large a barrier for the occurrence of thermal conductivity. Therefore, undoped conjugated polymers, such as polypyrrole, polyacetylene, have low electrical conductivity: from 10 −10 to 10 −8 S/cm. Even at a very low doping level (< 1%), the electrical conductivity increases by several orders of magnitude, up to values ​​of the order of 10 −1 S/cm. Subsequent doping leads to conductivity saturation at values ​​around 100–10000 S/cm, depending on the polymer. The highest conductivity values ​​currently known have been obtained for flexible polyacetylene with a reliable value of about 80,000 S/cm. Although the pi electrons in polyacetylene are delocalized along the chain, true polyacetylene is not a metal. Polyacetylene has variable single and double bonds of 1.45 Å and over 1.35 Å, respectively. After doping, the coupling variables decrease and the conductivity increases. An undoped increase in conductivity is achieved in a field-effect transistor (organic field-effect transistors) or by irradiation. Some materials exhibit negative differential resistance and voltage controlled "switching", similar to those seen in inorganic amorphous semiconductors. nine0011

Material classes

Structures of various conductive organic polymers. Polyphenylene vinylene, polyacetylene, polythiophene (X=S) and polypyrrole (X=NH), polyaniline (X=N, NH) and polyphenylene sulfide (X=S).
Well-studied classes of organic conductive polymers are: polyacetylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyaniline, poly-p-phenylene sulfide, and poly-p-phenylene-vinylene (PPV). PPV and its soluble derivatives emerged as a prototype for electroluminescent semiconductor polymers. Today, poly-3-alkythiophene is the archetypal material for solar cells and transistors. Other less well studied conductive polymers include: polyindole, polypyrene, polycarbazole, polyazulene, polyazerine, polyfluorene, and polynaphthalene. nine0011

Synthesis of conductive polymers

Many methods have been developed for the synthesis of polymers. Most conductive polymers are made by oxidizing the bond of a monocyclic precursor. Such a reaction entails dehydrogenation:

n H-[X]-H → H-[X] n -H + 2(n - 1) H+ + 2(n-1) e −

One problem is the generally low solubility of polymers. However, in some cases the molecular weight does not need to be high in order to achieve the desired properties. nine0011

Properties and application

The scope of applications for conductive polymers is constantly expanding due to their easy processing. They find use as antistatic materials, they are used in commercial displays and batteries, but their use is constrained by high production costs, inconsistencies in the required material properties, toxicity, poor solubility, and the inability to use directly in the melt process. There is evidence in the literature that they are also promising in organic solar cells, organic light emitting diodes, actuators, electrochromism, supercapacitors, biosensors, flexible transparent displays, electromagnetic screens, and possibly as a replacement for indium oxide.

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