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Factors that lead to domestic violence


What Causes Domestic Violence? | Psych Central

Domestic violence is about power and control. Abuse can happen to anyone of any race, gender, sexual orientation, or religion.

Being hurt by an intimate partner or spouse can be a very confusing and traumatizing experience for survivors of domestic abuse.

People on the outside may wonder why survivors don’t “just leave,” but abusive or violent relationships are often marked by complex dynamics that make it difficult to get away.

And despite societal and cultural stigma around who might experience abuse, domestic violence can happen to anyone. More than 10 million adults in the United States experience abuse by their romantic or intimate partner every year.

If you are experiencing domestic violence, it’s essential to understand that you aren’t at fault for your partner’s behavior. Survivors don’t “make” their abusers punish or target them with physical or psychological abuse.

Abusers use domestic violence to gain power and control over their targets. Domestic violence is a choice on the part of the abuser, but certain underlying factors might sometimes contribute to a person’s propensity for abuse, including:

  • experiencing childhood trauma
  • holding certain belief systems about hierarchy and domination
  • witnessing domestic violence as a child

Domestic abuse, also known as intimate partner abuse, describes any situation where a romantic or intimate partner or spouse uses dominating or violent behavior to exert control over a partner, physically, sexually, or psychologically.

Abuse can begin subtly for many people who experience it. This may make abusive behaviors difficult to discern in some cases, especially during the initial onset of abuse.

The goal of abusers who engage in domestic violence is almost always to control. Abusive partners and spouses may be looking for a way to manipulate you and maintain a sense of dominance.

Domestic abuse can take many forms, including these common types:

  • Sexual. Forcing you to participate in nonconsensual acts, including sexual assault and rape, demeaning behaviors, infidelity, or exploitation.
  • Physical. Any behaviors that directly harm you physically, including violence such as assault or withholding needs, like food, sleep, or housing.
  • Isolation. Preventing you from seeing family, friends, or attending social events.
  • Control. Eliminating freedom by controlling you from making your own choices, checking up on you obsessively, dictating your clothing or style choices, or using your children as leverage.
  • Emotional. Targeting your insecurities or vulnerabilities; brainwashing.
  • Verbal. Using words to threaten, blame, or demean you; screaming and flying into rages.
  • Male privilege. Adhering to cultural beliefs that men must be dominant over women.
  • Economic. Your partner has complete control over your spending and income, or squanders money on nonessentials.

Experiences of domestic abuse can often include many tactics at once.

You might find verbal and emotional abuse go hand in hand. Or your partner may control all your personal finances because of a belief that “that’s what men are supposed to do.”

Signs of domestic abuse

Because domestic abuse can be subtle and complex, you may not be sure whether what you’re experiencing qualifies as abuse.

Domestic abuse can be much more than physical violence. Even if they don’t cause you physical harm, controlling or dominating behaviors can still be considered domestic abuse.

Signs of financial abuse:

  • All the finances are under your partner’s name.
  • Your name is used for legal documents without your permission.
  • You have an allowance that’s often unrealistic and not self-imposed.
  • You’re not allowed to work or have income.

Signs of sexual abuse:

  • You’re forced into sexual acts or sex work.
  • You’re harmed during intimacy or sexually assaulted
  • Birth control is either withheld or forced on you without your consent.

Signs of physical abuse:

  • You experience physical assault.
  • Unwanted rough play occurs.
  • Partner aggression is directed at things you care about, like belongings, children, or pets.
  • You’re punished with deliberate reckless driving.
  • You’re forced or pressured into taking substances nonconsensually.
  • Your partner withholds food, water, or prevents sleep.
  • Your partner holds you down or keeps you imprisoned.

Signs of emotional abuse:

  • Your partner devalues or dismisses your beliefs.
  • Your partner withholds praise or appreciation.
  • Your partner is excessively jealous.
  • You’re accused of constant infidelity.
  • Your partner harms themselves or threatens to harm themselves to get you to cooperate.
  • Your partner makes you feel as though you deserved to be punished.

Signs of verbal abuse:

  • Your partner insults and demeans you.
  • Your partner belittles you in front of others.
  • You’re called names.
  • Your partner yells, screams, or rages at you.

Signs of control and isolation:

  • Your phone calls, text messages, or emails are constantly monitored.
  • Your partner demands you prove where you’re at whenever you’re apart.
  • You can’t wear certain clothes, do your hair a certain way, or wear makeup, or else your partner guilts or punishes you.
  • You’re not allowed to see family and friends.
  • Your partner stops you from attending social events.

Patriarchal domination:

  • Your partner refuses to do certain “women-only” chores.
  • You’re expected to behave in a submissive way.
  • You’re not allowed to contribute to decisions.

Domestic violence can be varied and individual, and there is no one cause of domestic violence.

It’s important to remember that domestic violence is a choice, not an uncontrolled impulse. A survivor’s actions cannot cause abusive behavior.

If you are experiencing domestic violence, you are never to blame. You can’t “make” someone abuse you, no matter what an abuser may say.

Even if you could do everything possible to please an abusive partner, their need to control you will likely still show itself through their behavior eventually.

In some cases, intimate partner abuse can be influenced by situations, including your own state of behavioral well-being. For example, if you and your partner both experience tendencies toward domestic violence, the situation may quickly spiral out of control.

While the possible causes of domestic violence may be as complex as some of the warning signs, research suggests much of domestic violence behavior is learned.

Children who witness domestic abuse may grow up thinking physical or psychological violence are acceptable ways to solve conflict. In the same way, raising children to believe a different gender is inferior may result in exhibiting controlling behavior later in life.

The need for control that could lead to domestic violence may be linked to several individual factors, including:

  • less access to education
  • personality disorders
  • substance use
  • cultural attitudes
  • gender ideologies
  • low self-esteem
  • struggling with anger management
  • insecurity

However, having some of these traits doesn’t automatically mean someone will have an unmet need for control that develops into domestic violence.

Having a partner who is insecure or experiences low self-esteem doesn’t necessarily mean they’ll have tendencies for abuse.

Power and control

Domestic violence is set apart by one partner’s behavior pattern used to gain or maintain control and power over another partner. Abusers tend to use these behavioral tactics to keep their partner in the relationship.

Usually, abusive behavior starts subtly and gradually and can become continuous over time. With domestic violence, these nuanced behaviors lead to physical, sexual, or psychological violence.

Even when domestic abuse escalates, the more subtle behaviors — like financial or emotional abuse — may continue being used as a method of reinforcing violence by subduing the abused partner further, making them easier to control.

If you notice your partner’s behaviors are increasingly focused on controlling or manipulating you, this could indicate that you may be in an escalating domestic violence situation.

It can sometimes be challenging to seek help if you’re experiencing domestic violence. You might not have access to private communication, or it may not be possible for you to leave your home.

Even if you’ve decided you want to leave, you might not feel safe enough to get out yet.

Options are still available for you as a survivor of domestic violence, even if you might sometimes feel like you’ve hit a dead end in getting help.

No matter where you are in the world, you can find resources available through the United Nations Critical Incident Stress Management Unit at undsscismu@un. org.

In the United States, you may also receive anonymous, confidential help at any hour through the National Domestic Violence Hotline: 800-799-7233 or 800-787-3224 (TTY).

The National Domestic Violence Hotline also offers an online chat feature as well as the option to text by sending “START” to 88788.

Additional resources can be found by calling the National Center for Victims of Crime: 855-484-2846.

In the event of an emergency, dialing 911 or contacting your local authorities can provide immediate assistance.

If you are experiencing domestic violence, you are not alone. Millions of people live with and report domestic violence by an intimate or romantic partner every year.

Your actions can’t cause abusive behavior, and nothing you’ve done can make you “deserve” any form of abuse from your partner or anyone else.

Domestic violence is varied and individualized in different situations. There is no one cause of domestic violence.

Abuse is a choice, and domestic violence stems from a partner’s need to gain power and control. These behaviors may be rooted in:

  • childhood experiences
  • psychological disorders
  • cultural beliefs

Domestic abuse isn’t just physical violence but can be a complex mixture of emotional and mental manipulation. You may find you’re being isolated or can’t wear the things you’d like to wear. You may not have any privacy or freedom.

These nuances and complexities mean that it sometimes can be challenging to identify abuse.

However, help is available if and when you are ready and feel safe enough to leave. And even if you don’t yet feel safe enough to leave, there are still options for seeking support. There are ways to get help and heal.

Where to find help

If you’re experiencing domestic violence, support is available:

  • You can call the the National Domestic Violence Hotline at 800-799-7233 for free, confidential, 24/7 care and support.
  • You can call loveisrespect.org at 866-331-9474 or text LOVEIS to 22522 for support if you think you could be in an abusive relationship.

In addition, you can visit The National Coalition Against Domestic Violence (NCADV), a domestic violence prevention advocacy group with a list of resources for relationship abuse help.

10 Most Common Causes of Domestic Violence in Relationship

In This Article

Anyone who has seen a family destroyed by domestic violence can wonder what would make a person act that way. Many perpetrators of domestic violence strike out without warning.  

Think of Ray Rice, who was a star in the National Football League. He was well-liked and a pillar of the community, when one night he got in a fight with his fiancée and knocked her out in an elevator. Since that time, he has, by all accounts, gone back to being a good person who helps other people avoid his mistakes.  

This type of unexpected behavior is relatively common. There are some warning signs of domestic abuse that everyone should be aware of, though.  

So, what are the main causes of domestic violence? What could be the reasons for domestic violence in an otherwise healthy marriage? Are the causes of domestic abuse valid? 

Well, domestic violence is a systematic pattern in behavior to instill dominance, superiority, and surveillance in the relationship. The factors of domestic violence are unjustified unless done in self-defense. In order to save yourself from facing the situation, know the 10 main causes of domestic violence in marriage. 

Related Reading: What Is Intimate Partner Violence

Mental problems

Women who are victims of severe physical abuse are likely to suffer from mental illness. The illnesses included anxiety, depression, alcoholism and drug dependence, antisocial personality disorder, and schizophrenia. It is not exactly clear if mentally ill women tend to be abused, or if abused women develop mental illness. Nonetheless, it appears likely the two unfortunate situations occur together, leading to one of the major factors that contribute to domestic violence.

Related Reading: Understanding The Effects Of Abuse

Poverty and unemployment

People in dire financial straits are more likely to be involved in domestic violence. Half of homeless women and children are victims of domestic violence. One major cause of this trend is the fact that abuse victims in poverty often lack the means to escape the situation. They may not have access to legal help or be able to afford their own housing. Abusers usually take steps to keep their victims in poverty as well. For example, an abuser may sabotage a job opportunity for their victim in order to keep the victim dependent on the abuser.

Related Reading: Solutions to Domestic Violence

Education

Around the world, education makes a huge difference in the rates of causes of family violence. Each additional year of schooling is associated with an increase in awareness and a woman’s ability to ward off unwanted sexual advances. Women with some secondary education lower their risk of domestic violence. This is possible because women with more education are more likely to see themselves as equal to their abusers and to have the means to secure their independence and avoid any factors of family violence

Related Reading: How to Stop Domestic Violence

Young parents

Parenting at a young age when the person is yet to learn the skills can lead to-

  • aggression
  • anger
  • frustration, and
  • depression.

This is possibly tied to other factors, because young parents are more likely to be single, struggling economically, or have lower educational achievement.  

Also Try: Domestic Violence Danger Assessment Quiz

Relationship Retention Behavior

One of the causes of domestic violence is the thought process that violence can help save marriage. Many partners resort to domestic violence in marriage because they think this is the only way to retain their partner. Any threat to the relationship motivates the spouse to devise such retention strategies. Such behaviors, although wrong, are meant to explicitly or implicitly aim at maintaining the bond. However, such a treatment, intimidation, or verbal abuse contributes to the causes of domestic violence. It, thereby, leads to marriage separation or divorce.

Historical Factors

Freedom for women and respective equality is still a matter of debate and is being fought for. So, the change of mindset is bound to take time.

So, what causes domestic abuse?    

The society was male dominant in earlier times. So, even if the situation of patriarchy and male dominance doesn’t exist in all pockets of society, it is not entirely possible to eradicate one of the biggest causes of domestic violence all at once. As a result, the superiority complex and the inherent evil of chauvinism acts as one of the major causes of domestic violence.

Cultural Factors

When two people from different cultures decide to be wedded, it is not necessary that they both are acquainted with the differences in the culture. It might seem exciting at first, but with time, cultural differences can play as one of the common causes of domestic violence. What might seem appropriate to once culture could be appreciated in another. And this will create one of the significant causes of family violence.

If couples do not adopt cultural differences with a conscious approach, this can lead to domestic violence causes. It can ultimately put the future in question. How to raise the kids? How cultural ideology to follow? A lot comes into the scene if coupes don’t share cultural compatibility and/or disrespect each other’s choices.

Related Reading: Interracial Marriage Problems

Self Defence

In the list of causes of domestic violence, self-defense can also act as an obvious factor. Many spouses can resort to violence to avoid any outbreak from their partner or act in response to their partner’s abuse. That means, if one partner is using any form of violence, another can mirror the same. On the other hand, the other partner can also take a step to introduce domestic violence if they feel a profound sense of relationship control from their partner. In order to balance out the power, this might seem to them as a last resort.

However, using violence can only be justified when the partners have no other way to defend themselves.

Related Reading: Can A Relationship Be Saved After Domestic Violence

Alcoholism 

 The use of alcohol and drugs can also lead to the occurrence and be the causes of domestic violence. Excessive drinking and drugs can be significant contributors to and causes of spousal abuse. This can lead to the ongoing pattern of abusive behavior by one partner. Alcoholism can lead to the formation of patterns, and if it is not controlled in time, it can lead to a constant need to maintain and control the relationship by the partner affected by the vice.

Suspicion of Infidelity

The spousal relationship is meant to be based on trust and faith. However, at times, when the trust is put to question, it can act as the causes of domestic violence in marriage. If a partner feels that another is not preserving the sanctity of marriage and is cheating on them, they might think of violence as the solution. The suspicion of infidelity can make the partner bitter and lead to opportunity based crime and violence.

In the video below, Emma Murphy talks about how taking a stand can avoid abuse. It is essential to consciously turn the terror of being a victim into a favorable situation. Refuse to let domestic violence diminish or define you.

Domestic violence is extremely uncalled for. It is often a series of behavior that leads to abuse. It is essential to detect such signs right at the start. Consider taking the help of a therapist to avoid any future consequences.

References

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6243007/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316322883_Use_of_Mate_Retention_Strategieshttps://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/factsheets/fs_intimate.pdf

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Child abuse

Child abuse
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    • Child abuse

    WHO/S. Becker

    © A photo

    \n

    Magnitude of the problem

    \n

    \nChild maltreatment is a global problem with serious lifelong consequences. Although studies have recently been carried out in some low- and middle-income countries, much data is still lacking.

    \n

    \nChild maltreatment is a complex and difficult issue to study. Available estimates vary widely depending on the country and the research method used. Grades depend on the following aspects:

    \n

      \n
    • applicable definitions of child abuse;\t
      • \n
    • type of child abuse being studied;
      • \n
    • coverage and quality of official statistics;
      • \n
    • coverage and quality of surveys that require reports from victims themselves, parents or caregivers.
      • \n

    \n

    \nHowever, international studies show that one quarter of all adults were physically abused as children, and that 1 in 5 women and 1 in 13 men were sexually abused as children. In addition, many children are victims of emotional (psychological) abuse and neglect.

    \n

    \nAn estimated 41,000 murders of children under the age of 15 occur each year. This figure underestimates the true extent of the problem, as a significant proportion of child abuse deaths are incorrectly attributed to falls, burns, drowning, and other causes.

    \n

    \nIn armed conflict and refugee camps, girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual violence, exploitation and abuse by the military, security forces, other members of their communities, humanitarian workers and others.

    \n

    Consequences of child abuse

    \n

    \nChild abuse hurts children and families and can have long-term consequences. Abuse leads to stress, which is associated with impaired early brain development. Extreme stress can disrupt the development of the nervous and immune systems. As a result, in adulthood, people who were abused as children are at increased risk of behavioral and physical and mental health problems, such as:

    \n

      \n
    • committing or being a victim of violence;\t
      • \n
    • depression;
      • \n
    • smoking;
      • \n
    • obesity;\n
      • \n
    • high risk sexual behavior;
      • \n
    • unplanned pregnancy;
      • \n
    • Harmful use of alcohol and drugs.
      • \n

    \n

    \nAs a result of these behavioral and mental health consequences, abuse can lead to heart disease, cancer, suicide, and sexually transmitted infections.

    \n

    \nIn addition to the health and societal impacts, child maltreatment also has economic impacts, including hospitalization costs, mental health care, child care, and long-term health costs.

    \n

    Risk factors

    \n

    \nRisk factors for child abuse have been identified. These risk factors are not present in all social and cultural settings, but they give a general idea when trying to understand the causes of child abuse.

    \n

    Child

    \n

    \nIt is important to emphasize that children are victims and should never be blamed for abuse. Some individual characteristics of a child may increase the likelihood of abuse:

    \n

      \n
    • a child under 4 years of age or a teenager;\n
      • \n
    • a child who is unwanted or does not live up to parental expectations;
      • \n
    • a child who has special needs, who cries constantly, or who has abnormal physical features.
      • \n

    \n

    Parents or caregivers

    \n

    \nSome characteristics of a parent or caregiver may increase the risk of child abuse. Among them are the following:

    \n

      \n
    • difficulties associated with the newborn;\n
      • \n
    • leaving the child unattended;
      • \n
    • childhood abuse;
      • \n
    • ignorance of child development or unrealistic expectations;
      • \n
    • harmful use of alcohol or drugs, including during pregnancy;
      • \n
    • involvement in criminal activity;
      • \n
    • experiencing financial difficulties. \n
      • \n

    \n

    Relationships

    \n

    \nA number of factors in relationships within families or between sexual partners, friends, and peers can increase the risk of child abuse, such as :

    \n

      \n
    • problems in the field of physical or mental health or development of any family member;\n
      • \n
    • discord in the family or violence between other family members;
      • \n
    • isolation from the community or lack of a supportive circle;
      • \n
    • lack of support in raising a child from other family members.
      • \n

    \n

    Community and social factors

    \n

    \nA number of characteristics of individual communities and communities can increase the risk of child abuse. They include:

    \n

      \n
    • gender and social inequality;
      • \n
    • lack of adequate housing or family support services and institutions;
      • \n
    • high levels of unemployment and poverty;
      • \n
    • easy access to alcohol and drugs;
      • \n
    • inappropriate policies and programs to prevent child abuse, child pornography, child prostitution, and child labor;\n
      • \n
    • social and cultural norms that support or glorify violence against others, favor the use of corporal punishment, require strong gender roles or belittling the status of the child in the relationship between parents and children;
      • \n
    • social, economic, health, and educational policies that lead to poor living standards or socioeconomic inequality or instability.
      • \n

    \n

    Prevention

    \n

    \nPrevention of child abuse requires a multisectoral approach. Effective programs are those that support parents and instill positive parenting skills. They include:

    \n

      \n
    • Nursing home visits to parents and children for support, education, and information;\n
      • \n
    • Parent education, usually in groups, to improve child-rearing skills, increase knowledge of child development, and encourage positive child-care strategies ; and
      • \n
    • multi-component activities, typically including parent support and education, early childhood education, and child care.
      • \n

    \n

    \nOther prevention programs are also promising in some respects.

    \n

      \n
    • Abuse head injury prevention programs (also called shaken baby syndrome and traumatic brain injury). These are usually hospital-level programs targeting young parents prior to their discharge, educating them about the dangers of shaken baby syndrome and recommending interventions for inconsolably crying babies.
      • \n
    • Child sexual abuse prevention programs. They are usually held in schools and teach children about the following areas:
      • \n
        \n
      • ownership of one's body;\t
        • \n
      • the difference between good and bad touch;
        • \n
      • how to recognize threatening situations;
        • \n
      • how to say \"no\";
        • \n
      • how to tell a trusted adult about abuse.
        • \n
      \n

    \n

    \nSuch programs are effective in increasing protective factors against child sexual abuse (for example, knowledge about sexual abuse and protective behaviors), but data on whether such programs reduce others types of violence are absent.

    \n

    \nThe earlier in a child's life such interventions are carried out, the more beneficial they are for the child (eg, cognitive development, behavioral and social competence, educational training) and for society (eg, reduced delinquency and crime).

    \n

    \nIn addition, early recognition of cases, combined with ongoing care for child victims of abuse and their families, can help reduce re-abuse and its consequences.

    \n

    \nFor maximum impact, prevention and care interventions are recommended by WHO as part of a four-pronged public health approach:

    \n

      \n
    • identifying the problem;\n
      • \n
    • identifying causes and risk factors;
      • \n
    • development and testing of measures aimed at minimizing risk factors;
      • \n
    • disseminate information on the effectiveness of interventions and scale up proven effective interventions.\n
      • \n

    \n

    WHO activities

    \n

    \nWHO in collaboration with a number of partners in the following areas:

    \ n

      \n
    • provides technical and regulatory guidance for evidence-based child abuse prevention;\n
      • \n
    • calls for greater international support for and investment in evidence-based child abuse prevention;
      • \n
    • provides technical support for evidence-based child abuse prevention programs in certain low- and middle-income countries.
      • \n

    ","datePublished":"2022-09-19T19:00:00.0000000+00:00","image":"https://cdn.who.int/media/images/default-source/ imported/children-running-jpg.jpg?sfvrsn=50512cc9_2","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"World Health Organization: WHO","logo":{"@type" :"ImageObject","url":"https://www.who.int/Images/SchemaOrg/schemaOrgLogo.jpg","width":250,"height":60}},"dateModified":"2022- 09-19T19:00:00.0000000+00:00","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.who.int/ru/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/child-maltreatment","@context": "http://schema.org","@type":"Article"};

    Key facts

    • One in 5 women and 1 in 13 men report being sexually abused as children.
    • The consequences of child maltreatment include lifelong physical and mental health damage, and its social and professional consequences can ultimately slow down the economic and social development of a country.
    • Child maltreatment can be prevented - this requires a multisectoral approach.
    • Effective prevention programs can support parents and teach them positive parenting skills.
    • Continued care for children and families can help reduce the risk of re-abuse and minimize its consequences.

    Child abuse is the mistreatment and neglect of children under the age of 18. It covers all types of physical and/or emotional abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, neglect and commercial or other exploitation that results in actual or potential harm to the health, survival, development or dignity of the child in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power. . Intimate partner violence is also sometimes considered a form of child abuse.

    Magnitude of the problem

    Child abuse is a global problem with serious lifelong consequences. Although studies have recently been carried out in some low- and middle-income countries, much data is still lacking.

    Child abuse is a complex and difficult issue to study. Available estimates vary widely depending on the country and the research method used. Grades depend on the following aspects:

    • applicable definitions of child abuse;
    • type of child abuse being studied;
    • coverage and quality of official statistics;
    • coverage and quality of surveys that require reports from victims themselves, parents or caregivers.

    However, international studies show that one quarter of all adults were physically abused as children, and that 1 in 5 women and 1 in 13 men were sexually abused as children. In addition, many children are victims of emotional (psychological) abuse and neglect.

    An estimated 41,000 murders of children under the age of 15 occur each year. This figure underestimates the true extent of the problem, as a significant proportion of child abuse deaths are incorrectly attributed to falls, burns, drowning, and other causes.

    In armed conflict and refugee camps, girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual violence, exploitation and abuse by the military, security forces, other members of their communities, humanitarian workers and others.

    Consequences of abuse

    Child abuse causes suffering to children and families and can have long-term consequences. Abuse leads to stress, which is associated with impaired early brain development. Extreme stress can disrupt the development of the nervous and immune systems. As a result, in adulthood, people who were abused as children are at increased risk of behavioral and physical and mental health problems, such as:

    • committing violence or becoming a victim of violence;
    • depression;
    • smoking;
    • obesity;
    • high risk sexual behavior;
    • unplanned pregnancy;
    • harmful use of alcohol and drugs.

    As a result of these behavioral and mental health consequences, abuse can lead to heart disease, cancer, suicide, and sexually transmitted infections.

    In addition to health and societal impacts, child maltreatment also has economic impacts, including the cost of hospitalization, mental health treatment, child care, and long-term health costs.

    Risk factors

    Risk factors for child abuse have been identified. These risk factors are not present in all social and cultural settings, but they give a general idea when trying to understand the causes of child abuse.

    Child

    It is important to emphasize that children are victims and should never be blamed for abuse. Certain individual characteristics of a child may increase the likelihood of abuse:

    • child under 4 years of age or adolescent;
    • an unwanted child or a child that does not live up to the expectations of the parents;
    • a child with special needs, constant crying or abnormal physical features.

    Parents or caregivers

    Certain characteristics of parents or caregivers may increase the risk of child abuse. Among them are the following:

    • difficulties associated with the newborn;
    • leaving a child unattended;
    • childhood abuse;
    • ignorance of child development or unrealistic expectations;
    • harmful use of alcohol or drugs, including during pregnancy;
    • involvement in criminal activity;
    • experiencing financial difficulties.

    Relationships

    A number of factors in family relationships or between sexual partners, friends and peers can increase the risk of child abuse, for example:

    • a family member's physical or mental health or developmental problems;
    • discord in the family or violence between other family members;
    • isolation in the community or lack of a support circle;
    • lack of support in raising a child from other family members.

    Community and social factors

    A number of characteristics of individual communities and communities can increase the risk of child abuse. They include:

    • gender and social inequality;
    • Lack of adequate housing or family support services and institutions;
    • high levels of unemployment and poverty;
    • easy access to alcohol and drugs;
    • inadequate policies and programs to prevent child abuse, child pornography, child prostitution and child labor;
    • social and cultural norms that support or glorify violence against others, favor the use of corporal punishment, require rigid gender roles, or degrade the status of the child in parent-child relationships;
    • social, economic, health and educational policies that lead to poor living standards or socioeconomic inequality or instability.

    Prophylaxis

    A multisectoral approach is needed to prevent child maltreatment. Effective programs are those that support parents and instill positive parenting skills. These include:

    • Nursing home visits to parents and children for support, education and information;
    • Parent education, usually in groups, to improve child-rearing skills, increase knowledge of child development, and encourage positive child-care strategies; and
    • multi-component activities, usually including parent support and education, early childhood education and childcare.

    Other prevention programs are also promising in some respects.

    • Abuse head injury prevention programs (also called shaken baby syndrome and traumatic brain injury). These are usually hospital-level programs targeting young parents prior to their discharge, educating them about the dangers of shaken baby syndrome and recommending interventions for inconsolably crying babies.
    • Child sexual abuse prevention programs. They are usually held in schools and educate children in the following areas:
      • ownership of one's body;
      • difference between good and bad touches;
      • how to recognize threatening situations;
      • how to say "no";
      • how to talk about abuse to a trustworthy adult.

    Such programs are effective in enhancing protective factors against child sexual abuse (eg, knowledge about sexual abuse and protective behaviours), but there is no evidence of whether such programs reduce other types of violence.

    The earlier in a child's life such interventions are, the more beneficial they are for the child (eg cognitive development, behavioral and social competence, educational training) and society (eg reduction in delinquency and crime).

    In addition, early recognition of cases, combined with continued care for child victims of violence and families, can help reduce re-abuse and its consequences.

    For maximum impact, prevention and care interventions are recommended by WHO as part of a four-step public health approach:

    • problem definition;
    • determination of causes and risk factors;
    • development and testing of measures aimed at minimizing risk factors;
    • disseminate information on the effectiveness of interventions and scale up proven effective interventions.

    WHO activities

    WHO is collaborating with a number of partners in the following areas:

    • provides evidence-based technical and normative guidance on child maltreatment prevention;
    • calls for increased international support for and investment in evidence-based child abuse prevention;
    • provides technical support for evidence-based child abuse prevention programs in selected low- and middle-income countries.

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